In
geometry
Geometry (; ) is, with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathematics. It is concerned with properties of space such as the distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is c ...
, a pentagon (from the
Greek πέντε ''pente'' meaning ''five'' and γωνία ''gonia'' meaning ''angle'') is any five-sided
polygon
In geometry, a polygon () is a plane figure that is described by a finite number of straight line segments connected to form a closed ''polygonal chain'' (or ''polygonal circuit''). The bounded plane region, the bounding circuit, or the two toge ...
or 5-gon. The sum of the
internal angles in a
simple
Simple or SIMPLE may refer to:
*Simplicity, the state or quality of being simple
Arts and entertainment
* ''Simple'' (album), by Andy Yorke, 2008, and its title track
* "Simple" (Florida Georgia Line song), 2018
* "Simple", a song by Johnn ...
pentagon is 540°.
A pentagon may be simple or
self-intersecting. A self-intersecting ''regular pentagon'' (or ''
star
A star is an astronomical object comprising a luminous spheroid of plasma (physics), plasma held together by its gravity. The List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs, nearest star to Earth is the Sun. Many other stars are visible to the naked ...
pentagon'') is called a
pentagram.
Regular pentagons
![Regular pentagon 1](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Regular_pentagon_1.svg)
A ''
regular pentagon'' has
Schläfli symbol
In geometry, the Schläfli symbol is a notation of the form \ that defines regular polytopes and tessellations.
The Schläfli symbol is named after the 19th-century Swiss mathematician Ludwig Schläfli, who generalized Euclidean geometry to more ...
and
interior angle
In geometry, an angle of a polygon is formed by two sides of the polygon that share an endpoint. For a simple (non-self-intersecting) polygon, regardless of whether it is convex or non-convex, this angle is called an interior angle (or ) if ...
s of 108°.
A ''
regular pentagon'' has five lines of
reflectional symmetry
In mathematics, reflection symmetry, line symmetry, mirror symmetry, or mirror-image symmetry is symmetry with respect to a reflection. That is, a figure which does not change upon undergoing a reflection has reflectional symmetry.
In 2D ther ...
, and
rotational symmetry
Rotational symmetry, also known as radial symmetry in geometry, is the property a shape has when it looks the same after some rotation by a partial turn. An object's degree of rotational symmetry is the number of distinct orientations in which i ...
of order 5 (through 72°, 144°, 216° and 288°). The
diagonals of a
convex regular pentagon are in the
golden ratio to its sides. Given its side length
its height
(distance from one side to the opposite vertex), width
(distance between two farthest separated points, which equals the diagonal length
) and circumradius
are given by:
:
The area of a convex regular pentagon with side length
is given by
:
If the circumradius
of a regular pentagon is given, its edge length
is found by the expression
:
and its area is
:
since the area of the circumscribed circle is
the regular pentagon fills approximately 0.7568 of its circumscribed circle.
Derivation of the area formula
The area of any regular polygon is:
:
where ''P'' is the perimeter of the polygon, and ''r'' is the
inradius
In geometry, the incircle or inscribed circle of a triangle is the largest circle that can be contained in the triangle; it touches (is tangent to) the three sides. The center of the incircle is a triangle center called the triangle's incenter.
...
(equivalently the
apothem
The apothem (sometimes abbreviated as apo) of a regular polygon is a line segment from the center to the midpoint of one of its sides. Equivalently, it is the line drawn from the center of the polygon that is perpendicular to one of its sides. T ...
). Substituting the regular pentagon's values for ''P'' and ''r'' gives the formula
:
with side length ''t''.
Inradius
Similar to every regular convex polygon, the regular convex pentagon has an
inscribed circle
In geometry, the incircle or inscribed circle of a triangle is the largest circle that can be contained in the triangle; it touches (is tangent to) the three sides. The center of the incircle is a triangle center called the triangle's incenter.
...
. The
apothem
The apothem (sometimes abbreviated as apo) of a regular polygon is a line segment from the center to the midpoint of one of its sides. Equivalently, it is the line drawn from the center of the polygon that is perpendicular to one of its sides. T ...
, which is the radius ''r'' of the inscribed circle, of a regular pentagon is related to the side length ''t'' by
:
Chords from the circumscribed circle to the vertices
Like every regular convex polygon, the regular convex pentagon has a
circumscribed circle. For a regular pentagon with successive vertices A, B, C, D, E, if P is any point on the circumcircle between points B and C, then PA + PD = PB + PC + PE.
Point in plane
For an arbitrary point in the plane of a regular pentagon with circumradius
, whose distances to the centroid of the regular pentagon and its five vertices are
and
respectively, we have
:
If
are the distances from the vertices of a regular pentagon to any point on its circumcircle, then
:
Geometrical constructions
The regular pentagon is constructible with
compass and straightedge
In geometry, straightedge-and-compass construction – also known as ruler-and-compass construction, Euclidean construction, or classical construction – is the construction of lengths, angles, and other geometric figures using only an ideali ...
, as 5 is a
Fermat prime. A variety of methods are known for constructing a regular pentagon. Some are discussed below.
Richmond's method
![Richmond pentagon 1](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Richmond_pentagon_1.PNG)
One method to construct a regular pentagon in a given circle is described by Richmond
and further discussed in Cromwell's ''
Polyhedra''.
The top panel shows the construction used in Richmond's method to create the side of the inscribed pentagon. The circle defining the pentagon has unit radius. Its center is located at point ''C'' and a midpoint ''M'' is marked halfway along its radius. This point is joined to the periphery vertically above the center at point ''D''. Angle ''CMD'' is bisected, and the bisector intersects the vertical axis at point ''Q''. A horizontal line through ''Q'' intersects the circle at point ''P'', and chord ''PD'' is the required side of the inscribed pentagon.
To determine the length of this side, the two right triangles ''DCM'' and ''QCM'' are depicted below the circle. Using
Pythagoras' theorem and two sides, the hypotenuse of the larger triangle is found as
. Side ''h'' of the smaller triangle then is found using the
half-angle formula:
:
where cosine and sine of ''ϕ'' are known from the larger triangle. The result is:
:
If DP is truly the side of a regular pentagon,
, so DP = 2 cos(54°), QD = DP cos(54°) = 2cos
2(54°), and CQ = 1 − 2cos
2(54°), which equals −cos(108°) by the cosine
double angle formula. This is the cosine of 72°,
which equals as desired.
Carlyle circles
![Regular Pentagon Using Carlyle Circle](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Regular_Pentagon_Using_Carlyle_Circle.gif)
The Carlyle circle was invented as a geometric method to find the roots of a
quadratic equation
In algebra, a quadratic equation () is any equation that can be rearranged in standard form as
ax^2 + bx + c = 0\,,
where represents an unknown (mathematics), unknown value, and , , and represent known numbers, where . (If and then the equati ...
.
This methodology leads to a procedure for constructing a regular pentagon. The steps are as follows:
# Draw a
circle
A circle is a shape consisting of all points in a plane that are at a given distance from a given point, the centre. Equivalently, it is the curve traced out by a point that moves in a plane so that its distance from a given point is const ...
in which to inscribe the pentagon and mark the center point ''O''.
# Draw a horizontal line through the center of the circle. Mark the left intersection with the circle as point ''B''.
# Construct a vertical line through the center. Mark one intersection with the circle as point ''A''.
# Construct the point ''M'' as the midpoint of ''O'' and ''B''.
# Draw a circle centered at ''M'' through the point ''A''. Mark its intersection with the horizontal line (inside the original circle) as the point ''W'' and its intersection outside the circle as the point ''V''.
# Draw a circle of radius ''OA'' and center ''W''. It intersects the original circle at two of the vertices of the pentagon.
# Draw a circle of radius ''OA'' and center ''V''. It intersects the original circle at two of the vertices of the pentagon.
# The fifth vertex is the rightmost intersection of the horizontal line with the original circle.
Steps 6–8 are equivalent to the following version, shown in the animation:
: 6a. Construct point F as the midpoint of O and W.
: 7a. Construct a vertical line through F. It intersects the original circle at two of the vertices of the pentagon. The third vertex is the rightmost intersection of the horizontal line with the original circle.
: 8a. Construct the other two vertices using the compass and the length of the vertex found in step 7a.
Euclid's method
![01-Pentagon-Euklid Animation](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/01-Pentagon-Euklid_Animation.gif)
A regular pentagon is
constructible using a
compass and straightedge
In geometry, straightedge-and-compass construction – also known as ruler-and-compass construction, Euclidean construction, or classical construction – is the construction of lengths, angles, and other geometric figures using only an ideali ...
, either by inscribing one in a given circle or constructing one on a given edge. This process was described by
Euclid
Euclid (; grc-gre, Wikt:Εὐκλείδης, Εὐκλείδης; BC) was an ancient Greek mathematician active as a geometer and logician. Considered the "father of geometry", he is chiefly known for the ''Euclid's Elements, Elements'' trea ...
in his ''
Elements
Element or elements may refer to:
Science
* Chemical element, a pure substance of one type of atom
* Heating element, a device that generates heat by electrical resistance
* Orbital elements, parameters required to identify a specific orbit of ...
'' circa 300 BC.
Physical construction methods
![Overhand-folded-ribbon-pentagon](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Overhand-folded-ribbon-pentagon.svg)
* A regular pentagon may be created from just a strip of paper by tying an
overhand knot into the strip and carefully flattening the knot by pulling the ends of the paper strip. Folding one of the ends back over the pentagon will reveal a
pentagram when backlit.
* Construct a regular
hexagon
In geometry, a hexagon (from Ancient Greek, Greek , , meaning "six", and , , meaning "corner, angle") is a six-sided polygon. The total of the internal angles of any simple polygon, simple (non-self-intersecting) hexagon is 720°.
Regular hexa ...
on stiff paper or card. Crease along the three diameters between opposite vertices. Cut from one vertex to the center to make an equilateral triangular flap. Fix this flap underneath its neighbor to make a
pentagonal pyramid
In geometry, a pentagonal pyramid is a pyramid with a pentagonal base upon which are erected five triangular faces that meet at a point (the apex). Like any pyramid, it is self- dual.
The ''regular'' pentagonal pyramid has a base that is a regu ...
. The base of the pyramid is a regular pentagon.
Symmetry
![Symmetries of pentagon](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Symmetries_of_pentagon.png)
The ''regular pentagon'' has
Dih5 symmetry, order 10. Since 5 is a
prime number
A prime number (or a prime) is a natural number greater than 1 that is not a product of two smaller natural numbers. A natural number greater than 1 that is not prime is called a composite number. For example, 5 is prime because the only ways ...
there is one subgroup with dihedral symmetry: Dih
1, and 2
cyclic group symmetries: Z
5, and Z
1.
These 4 symmetries can be seen in 4 distinct symmetries on the pentagon.
John Conway
John Horton Conway (26 December 1937 – 11 April 2020) was an English mathematician active in the theory of finite groups, knot theory, number theory, combinatorial game theory and coding theory. He also made contributions to many branches o ...
labels these by a letter and group order. Full symmetry of the regular form is r10 and no symmetry is labeled a1. The dihedral symmetries are divided depending on whether they pass through vertices (d for diagonal) or edges (p for perpendiculars), and i when reflection lines path through both edges and vertices. Cyclic symmetries in the middle column are labeled as g for their central gyration orders.
Each subgroup symmetry allows one or more degrees of freedom for irregular forms. Only the g5 subgroup has no degrees of freedom but can be seen as
directed edges.
Regular pentagram
A pentagram or pentangle is a
regular star
A star is an astronomical object comprising a luminous spheroid of plasma (physics), plasma held together by its gravity. The List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs, nearest star to Earth is the Sun. Many other stars are visible to the naked ...
pentagon. Its
Schläfli symbol
In geometry, the Schläfli symbol is a notation of the form \ that defines regular polytopes and tessellations.
The Schläfli symbol is named after the 19th-century Swiss mathematician Ludwig Schläfli, who generalized Euclidean geometry to more ...
is . Its sides form the diagonals of a regular convex pentagon – in this arrangement the
sides of the two pentagons are in the
golden ratio.
Equilateral pentagons
![Equilateral pentagon](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Equilateral_pentagon.SVG)
An equilateral pentagon is a polygon with five sides of equal length. However, its five internal angles can take a range of sets of values, thus permitting it to form a family of pentagons. In contrast, the regular pentagon is unique
up to Two Mathematical object, mathematical objects ''a'' and ''b'' are called equal up to an equivalence relation ''R''
* if ''a'' and ''b'' are related by ''R'', that is,
* if ''aRb'' holds, that is,
* if the equivalence classes of ''a'' and ''b'' wi ...
similarity, because it is equilateral and it is equiangular (its five angles are equal).
Cyclic pentagons
A
cyclic
Cycle, cycles, or cyclic may refer to:
Anthropology and social sciences
* Cyclic history, a theory of history
* Cyclical theory, a theory of American political history associated with Arthur Schlesinger, Sr.
* Social cycle, various cycles in soc ...
pentagon is one for which a circle called the circumcircle goes through all five vertices. The regular pentagon is an example of a cyclic pentagon. The area of a cyclic pentagon, whether regular or not, can be expressed as one fourth the square root of one of the roots of a
septic equation
In algebra, a septic equation is an equation of the form
:ax^7+bx^6+cx^5+dx^4+ex^3+fx^2+gx+h=0,\,
where .
A septic function is a function of the form
:f(x)=ax^7+bx^6+cx^5+dx^4+ex^3+fx^2+gx+h\,
where . In other words, it is a polynomial of d ...
whose coefficients are functions of the sides of the pentagon.
There exist cyclic pentagons with rational sides and rational area; these are called
Robbins pentagon
In geometry, a Robbins pentagon is a cyclic pentagon whose side lengths and area are all rational numbers.
History
Robbins pentagons were named by after David P. Robbins, who had previously given a formula for the area of a cyclic pentagon as a ...
s. It has been proven that the diagonals of a Robbins pentagon must be either all rational or all irrational, and it is conjectured that all the diagonals must be rational.
General convex pentagons
For all convex pentagons, the sum of the squares of the diagonals is less than 3 times the sum of the squares of the sides.
[''Inequalities proposed in “ Crux Mathematicorum”'']
Pentagons in tiling
![2-d pentagon packing dual](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/2-d_pentagon_packing_dual.svg)
A regular pentagon cannot appear in any tiling of regular polygons. First, to prove a pentagon cannot form a
regular tiling (one in which all faces are congruent, thus requiring that all the polygons be pentagons), observe that (where 108° Is the interior angle), which is not a whole number; hence there exists no integer number of pentagons sharing a single vertex and leaving no gaps between them. More difficult is proving a pentagon cannot be in any edge-to-edge tiling made by regular polygons:
The maximum known
packing density of a regular pentagon is approximately 0.921, achieved by the
double lattice In mathematics, especially in geometry, a double lattice in is a discrete subgroup of the group of Euclidean motions that consists only of translations and point reflections and such that the subgroup of translations is a lattice. The orbit of an ...
packing shown. In a preprint released in 2016,
Thomas Hales and Wöden Kusner announced a proof that the double lattice packing of the regular pentagon (which they call the "pentagonal ice-ray" packing, and which they trace to the work of Chinese artisans in 1900) has the optimal density among all packings of regular pentagons in the plane.
, their proof has not yet been refereed and published.
There are no combinations of regular polygons with 4 or more meeting at a vertex that contain a pentagon. For combinations with 3, if 3 polygons meet at a vertex and one has an odd number of sides, the other 2 must be congruent. The reason for this is that the polygons that touch the edges of the pentagon must alternate around the pentagon, which is impossible because of the pentagon's odd number of sides. For the pentagon, this results in a polygon whose angles are all . To find the number of sides this polygon has, the result is , which is not a whole number. Therefore, a pentagon cannot appear in any tiling made by regular polygons.
There are 15 classes of pentagons that can
monohedrally tile the plane. None of the pentagons have any symmetry in general, although some have special cases with mirror symmetry.
Pentagons in polyhedra
Pentagons in nature
Plants
File:BhindiCutUp.jpg, Pentagonal cross-section of okra.
File:Morning Glory Flower.jpg, Morning glories
Morning glory (also written as morning-glory) is the common name for over 1,000 species of flowering plants in the family Convolvulaceae, whose current taxonomy and systematics are in flux. Morning glory species belong to many genera, some of ...
, like many other flowers, have a pentagonal shape.
File:Sterappel dwarsdrsn.jpg, The gynoecium
Gynoecium (; ) is most commonly used as a collective term for the parts of a flower that produce ovules and ultimately develop into the fruit and seeds. The gynoecium is the innermost whorl of a flower; it consists of (one or more) ''pistils'' ...
of an apple
An apple is an edible fruit produced by an apple tree (''Malus domestica''). Apple fruit tree, trees are agriculture, cultivated worldwide and are the most widely grown species in the genus ''Malus''. The tree originated in Central Asia, wh ...
contains five carpels, arranged in a five-pointed star
File:Carambola Starfruit.jpg, Starfruit
Carambola, also known as star fruit, is the fruit of '' Averrhoa carambola'', a species of tree native to tropical Southeast Asia. The mildly poisonous fruit is commonly consumed in parts of Brazil, Southeast Asia, South Asia, the South Pacif ...
is another fruit with fivefold symmetry.
Animals
File:Oreaster reticulatus201905mx.jpg, A sea star. Many echinoderms
An echinoderm () is any member of the phylum Echinodermata (). The adults are recognisable by their (usually five-point) radial symmetry, and include starfish, brittle stars, sea urchins, sand dollars, and sea cucumbers, as well as the sea li ...
have fivefold radial symmetry.
File:Sea Urchin Endoskeleton.jpg, Another example of echinoderm, a sea urchin
Sea urchins () are spiny, globular echinoderms in the class Echinoidea. About 950 species of sea urchin live on the seabed of every ocean and inhabit every depth zone from the intertidal seashore down to . The spherical, hard shells (tests) of ...
endoskeleton.
File:Haeckel Ophiodea.jpg, An illustration of brittle stars
Brittle stars, serpent stars, or ophiuroids (; ; referring to the serpent-like arms of the brittle star) are echinoderms in the class Ophiuroidea, closely related to starfish. They crawl across the sea floor using their flexible arms for locomot ...
, also echinoderms with a pentagonal shape.
Minerals
File:Ho-Mg-ZnQuasicrystal.jpg, A Ho-Mg-Zn icosahedral quasicrystal formed as a pentagonal dodecahedron. The faces are true regular pentagons.
File:Pyrite elbe.jpg, A pyritohedral
image:tetrahedron.jpg, 150px, A regular tetrahedron, an example of a solid with full tetrahedral symmetry
A regular tetrahedron has 12 rotational (or orientation-preserving) symmetries, and a symmetry order of 24 including transformations that c ...
crystal of pyrite
The mineral pyrite (), or iron pyrite, also known as fool's gold, is an iron sulfide with the chemical formula Iron, FeSulfur, S2 (iron (II) disulfide). Pyrite is the most abundant sulfide mineral.
Pyrite's metallic Luster (mineralogy), lust ...
. A pyritohedron has 12 identical pentagonal faces that are not constrained to be regular.
Other examples
File:The Pentagon January 2008.jpg, The Pentagon
The Pentagon is the headquarters building of the United States Department of Defense. It was constructed on an accelerated schedule during World War II. As a symbol of the U.S. military, the phrase ''The Pentagon'' is often used as a metony ...
, headquarters of the United States Department of Defense
The United States Department of Defense (DoD, USDOD or DOD) is an executive branch department of the federal government charged with coordinating and supervising all agencies and functions of the government directly related to national secu ...
.
File:Home base of baseball field in Třebíč, Třebíč District.jpg, Home plate of a baseball field
A baseball field, also called a ball field or baseball diamond, is the field upon which the game of baseball is played. The term can also be used as a metonym for a baseball park. The term sandlot is sometimes used, although this usually refers ...
See also
*
Associahedron; A pentagon is an order-4 associahedron
*
Dodecahedron, a polyhedron whose regular form is composed of 12 pentagonal faces
*
Golden ratio
*
List of geometric shapes
Lists of shapes cover different types of geometric shape and related topics. They include mathematics topics and other lists of shapes, such as shapes used by drawing or teaching tools.
Mathematics
* List of mathematical shapes
* List of two- ...
*
Pentagonal numbers
*
Pentagram
*
Pentagram map
*
Pentastar
The Chrysler Pentastar engine family is a series of aluminium ( die-cast cylinder block) dual overhead cam 24-valve gasoline V6 engines introduced for model-year 2011 Chrysler, Dodge and Jeep vehicles. The engine was initially named " Phoenix ...
, the Chrysler logo
*
Pythagoras' theorem#Similar figures on the three sides
*
Trigonometric constants for a pentagon
In-line notes and references
External links
*
Animated demonstrationconstructing an inscribed pentagon with compass and straightedge.
How to construct a regular pentagonwith only a compass and straightedge.
using only a strip of paper
with interactive animation
Renaissance artists' approximate constructions of regular pentagonsHow to calculate various dimensions of regular pentagons.
{{Polytopes
Constructible polygons
Polygons by the number of sides
5 (number)
Elementary shapes