Александр Пушкин
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Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin () was a Russian poet, playwright, and novelist of the
Romantic era Romanticism (also known as the Romantic movement or Romantic era) was an artistic and intellectual movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th century. The purpose of the movement was to advocate for the importance of subjec ...
.Basker, Michael. Pushkin and Romanticism. In Ferber, Michael, ed., ''A Companion to European Romanticism''. Oxford: Blackwell, 2005. He is considered by many to be the greatest Russian poet,Short biography from University of Virginia
. Retrieved 24 November 2006.
Allan Reid, "Russia's Greatest Poet/Scoundrel"
Retrieved 2 September 2006.
as well as the founder of modern
Russian literature Russian literature refers to the literature of Russia, its Russian diaspora, émigrés, and to Russian language, Russian-language literature. Major contributors to Russian literature, as well as English for instance, are authors of different e ...
.Maxim Gorky
"Pushkin, An Appraisal"
Retrieved 1 September 2006.
Pushkin was born into the
Russian nobility The Russian nobility or ''dvoryanstvo'' () arose in the Middle Ages. In 1914, it consisted of approximately 1,900,000 members, out of a total population of 138,200,000. Up until the February Revolution of 1917, the Russian noble estates staffed ...
in Moscow. His father, Sergey Lvovich Pushkin, belonged to an old noble family. One of his maternal great-grandfathers was
Abram Petrovich Gannibal Abram Petrovich Gannibal, also Hannibal or Ganibal, or Abram Hannibal or Abram Petrov (; c. 1696 – 14 May 1781), was a Russian Chief Military Engineer, General-in-Chief, and nobleman of African origin. As a child, Gannibal was captured by Otto ...
, a nobleman of African origin who was kidnapped from his homeland by the
Ottomans Ottoman may refer to: * Osman I, historically known in English as "Ottoman I", founder of the Ottoman Empire * Osman II, historically known in English as "Ottoman II" * Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empir ...
, then freed by the Russian Emperor and raised in the Emperor's court household as his
godson Within Christianity, a godparent or sponsor is someone who bears witness to a child's baptism (christening) and later is willing to help in their catechesis, as well as their lifelong spiritual formation. In both religious and civil views, ...
. He published his first poem at the age of 15, and was widely recognized by the literary establishment by the time of his graduation from the
Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum The Imperial Lyceum () in Tsarskoye Selo near Saint Petersburg, also known historically as the Imperial Alexander Lyceum after its founder Tsar Alexander I, was an educational institution which was founded in 1811 with the object of educating yo ...
. Upon graduation from the Lycée, Pushkin recited his controversial poem " Ode to Liberty", one of several that led to his exile by Emperor
Alexander I Alexander I may refer to: * Alexander I of Macedon, king of Macedon from 495 to 454 BC * Alexander I of Epirus (370–331 BC), king of Epirus * Alexander I Theopator Euergetes, surnamed Balas, ruler of the Seleucid Empire 150-145 BC * Pope Alex ...
. While under strict surveillance by the Emperor's political police and unable to publish, Pushkin wrote his most famous play, ''
Boris Godunov Boris Feodorovich Godunov (; ; ) was the ''de facto'' regent of Russia from 1585 to 1598 and then tsar from 1598 to 1605 following the death of Feodor I, the last of the Rurik dynasty. After the end of Feodor's reign, Russia descended into t ...
''. His novel in verse ''
Eugene Onegin ''Eugene Onegin, A Novel in Verse'' (, Reforms of Russian orthography, pre-reform Russian: Евгеній Онѣгинъ, романъ въ стихахъ, ) is a novel in verse written by Alexander Pushkin. ''Onegin'' is considered a classic of ...
'' was serialized between 1825 and 1832. Pushkin was fatally wounded in a
duel A duel is an arranged engagement in combat between two people with matched weapons. During the 17th and 18th centuries (and earlier), duels were mostly single combats fought with swords (the rapier and later the small sword), but beginning in ...
with his wife's alleged lover (her sister's husband), Georges-Charles de Heeckeren d'Anthès, also known as Dantes-Gekkern, a French officer serving with the
Chevalier Guard Regiment The Chevalier Guard Regiment () was a Russian heavy cavalry guard regiment, created in 1800 by the reformation of the Chevalier Guard corps, itself created in 1764 by Catherine the Great. As other Russian heavy cavalry guard regiments (the Life ...
.


Ancestry

Pushkin's father, Sergei Lvovich Pushkin (1767–1848), was descended from a distinguished family of the Russian nobility that traced its ancestry back to the 12th century.Н.К. Телетова .K. Teletova(2007). Pushkin's mother, Nadezhda (Nadya) Ossipovna Gannibal (1775–1836), was descended through her paternal grandmother from
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany, the country of the Germans and German things **Germania (Roman era) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizenship in Germany, see also Ge ...
and Scandinavian nobility. She was the daughter of Ossip Abramovich Gannibal (1744–1807) and his wife, Maria Alekseyevna Pushkina (1745–1818). Ossip Abramovich Gannibal's father, Pushkin's great-grandfather, was
Abram Petrovich Gannibal Abram Petrovich Gannibal, also Hannibal or Ganibal, or Abram Hannibal or Abram Petrov (; c. 1696 – 14 May 1781), was a Russian Chief Military Engineer, General-in-Chief, and nobleman of African origin. As a child, Gannibal was captured by Otto ...
(1696–1781), an African
page Page most commonly refers to: * Page (paper), one side of a leaf of paper, as in a book Page, PAGE, pages, or paging may also refer to: Roles * Page (assistance occupation), a professional occupation * Page (servant), traditionally a young m ...
kidnapped and taken to
Constantinople Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...
as a gift for the
Ottoman Sultan The sultans of the Ottoman Empire (), who were all members of the Ottoman dynasty (House of Osman), ruled over the Boundaries between the continents, transcontinental empire from its perceived inception in 1299 to Dissolution of the Ottoman Em ...
and later transferred to Russia as a gift for
Peter the Great Peter I (, ; – ), better known as Peter the Great, was the Sovereign, Tsar and Grand Prince of all Russia, Tsar of all Russia from 1682 and the first Emperor of Russia, Emperor of all Russia from 1721 until his death in 1725. He reigned j ...
. Abram wrote in a letter to Empress Elizabeth, Peter the Great's daughter, that Gannibal was from the town of "Lagon", largely on the basis of a mythical biography by Gannibal's son-in-law Rotkirch.
Vladimir Nabokov Vladimir Vladimirovich Nabokov ( ; 2 July 1977), also known by the pen name Vladimir Sirin (), was a Russian and American novelist, poet, translator, and entomologist. Born in Imperial Russia in 1899, Nabokov wrote his first nine novels in Rus ...
, when researching ''
Eugene Onegin ''Eugene Onegin, A Novel in Verse'' (, Reforms of Russian orthography, pre-reform Russian: Евгеній Онѣгинъ, романъ въ стихахъ, ) is a novel in verse written by Alexander Pushkin. ''Onegin'' is considered a classic of ...
'', cast serious doubt on this origin theory. Later research by the scholars Dieudonné Gnammankou and Hugh Barnes eventually conclusively established that Gannibal was instead born in Central Africa, in an area bordering
Lake Chad Lake Chad (, Kanuri language, Kanuri: ''Sádǝ'', ) is an endorheic freshwater lake located at the junction of four countries: Nigeria, Niger, Chad, and Cameroon, in western and central Africa respectively, with a catchment area in excess of . ...
in modern-day
Cameroon Cameroon, officially the Republic of Cameroon, is a country in Central Africa. It shares boundaries with Nigeria to the west and north, Chad to the northeast, the Central African Republic to the east, and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the R ...
. After education in France as a
military engineer Military engineering is loosely defined as the art, science, and practice of designing and building military works and maintaining lines of military transport and military communications. Military engineers are also responsible for logistics ...
, Gannibal became governor of
Reval Tallinn is the capital and most populous city of Estonia. Situated on a bay in north Estonia, on the shore of the Gulf of Finland of the Baltic Sea, it has a population of (as of 2025) and administratively lies in the Harju ''maakond'' (co ...
and eventually Général en Chief (the third most senior army rank) in charge of the building of sea forts and canals in Russia.


Early life

Born in Moscow, Pushkin was entrusted to nursemaids and French tutors, and spoke mostly French until the age of ten. He became acquainted with the Russian language through communication with household serfs and his nanny, Arina Rodionovna, whom he loved dearly and to whom he was more attached than to his own mother. He published his first poem at the age of 15. When he finished school, as part of the first graduating class of the prestigious
Imperial Lyceum The Imperial Lyceum () in Tsarskoye Selo near Saint Petersburg, also known historically as the Imperial Alexander Lyceum after its founder Tsar Alexander I, was an educational institution which was founded in 1811 with the object of educating yo ...
in
Tsarskoye Selo Tsarskoye Selo (, , ) was the town containing a former residence of the Russian House of Romanov, imperial family and visiting nobility, located south from the center of Saint Petersburg. The residence now forms part of the Pushkin, Saint Peter ...
, near Saint Petersburg, his talent was already widely recognized on the Russian literary scene. At the Lyceum, he was a student of David Mara, known in Russia as , a younger brother of French revolutionary
Jean-Paul Marat Jean-Paul Marat (, , ; born Jean-Paul Mara; 24 May 1743 – 13 July 1793) was a French political theorist, physician, and scientist. A journalist and politician during the French Revolution, he was a vigorous defender of the ''sans-culottes ...
. After school, Pushkin plunged into the vibrant and raucous intellectual youth culture of St. Petersburg, which was then the capital of the
Russian Empire The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...
. In 1820, he published his first long poem, ''
Ruslan and Ludmila ''Ruslan and Ludmila'' ( pre-reform Russian: ; post-reform ) is a poem by Alexander Pushkin, published in 1820. Written as an epic literary fairy tale consisting of a dedication (посвящение), six "cantos" ( песни), and an epilogue ( ...
'', with much controversy about its subject and style.


Social activism

While at the Lyceum, Pushkin was heavily influenced by the
Kant Immanuel Kant (born Emanuel Kant; 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher and one of the central Enlightenment thinkers. Born in Königsberg, Kant's comprehensive and systematic works in epistemology, metaphysics, et ...
ian liberal individualist teachings of Alexander Kunitsyn, whom Pushkin would later commemorate in his poem ''19 October''. Pushkin also immersed himself in the thought of the French
Enlightenment Enlightenment or enlighten may refer to: Age of Enlightenment * Age of Enlightenment, period in Western intellectual history from the late 17th to late 18th century, centered in France but also encompassing (alphabetically by country or culture): ...
, to which he would remain permanently indebted throughout his life, especially
Voltaire François-Marie Arouet (; 21 November 169430 May 1778), known by his ''Pen name, nom de plume'' Voltaire (, ; ), was a French Age of Enlightenment, Enlightenment writer, philosopher (''philosophe''), satirist, and historian. Famous for his wit ...
, whom he described as "the first to follow the new road, and to bring the lamp of philosophy into the dark archives of history". Pushkin gradually became committed to social reform, and emerged as a spokesman for literary radicals. That angered the government and led to his transfer from the capital in May 1820. He went to the
Caucasus The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, comprising parts of Southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Caucasus Mountains, i ...
and to
Crimea Crimea ( ) is a peninsula in Eastern Europe, on the northern coast of the Black Sea, almost entirely surrounded by the Black Sea and the smaller Sea of Azov. The Isthmus of Perekop connects the peninsula to Kherson Oblast in mainland Ukrain ...
and then to Kamianka and Chișinău in Bessarabia. He joined the
Filiki Eteria Filiki Eteria () or Society of Friends () was a secret political and revolutionary organization founded in 1814 in Odesa, Odessa, whose purpose was to overthrow Ottoman Empire, Ottoman rule in Ottoman Greece, Greece and establish an Independenc ...
, a secret organization whose purpose was to overthrow Ottoman rule in Greece and establish an independent Greek state. He was inspired by the
Greek Revolution The Greek War of Independence, also known as the Greek Revolution or the Greek Revolution of 1821, was a successful war of independence by Greek revolutionaries against the Ottoman Empire between 1821 and 1829. In 1826, the Greeks were assisted ...
and when the war against the Ottoman Empire broke out, he kept a diary recording the events of the national uprising.


Rise

He stayed in Chișinău until 1823 and wrote two Romantic poems which brought him acclaim: '' The Prisoner of the Caucasus'' and ''
The Fountain of Bakhchisaray ''The Fountain of Bakhchisaray'' (, ''Bakhchisaraiskiy fontan'') is a narrative poem by Alexander Pushkin, written from 1821 to 1823. Pushkin began writing ''The Fountain of Bakhchisaray'' in the spring of 1821, after having visited The ...
''. In 1823, Pushkin moved to
Odessa ODESSA is an American codename (from the German language, German: ''Organisation der ehemaligen SS-Angehörigen'', meaning: Organization of Former SS Members) coined in 1946 to cover Ratlines (World War II aftermath), Nazi underground escape-pl ...
, where he again clashed with the government, which sent him into exile on his mother's rural estate of Mikhailovskoye, near
Pskov Pskov ( rus, Псков, a=Ru-Псков.oga, p=psˈkof; see also Names of Pskov in different languages, names in other languages) is a types of inhabited localities in Russia, city in northwestern Russia and the administrative center of Pskov O ...
, from 1824 to 1826. In Mikhaylovskoye, Pushkin wrote nostalgic love poems which he dedicated to Elizaveta Vorontsova, wife of
Malorossia Little Russia, also known as Lesser Russia, Malorussia, or Little Rus', is a geographical and historical term used to describe Ukraine. At the beginning of the 14th century, the patriarch of Constantinople accepted the distinction between what ...
's
General-Governor Governor-general (plural governors-general), or governor general (plural governors general), is the title of an official, most prominently associated with the British Empire. In the context of the governors-general and former British colonies, ...
. Then Pushkin worked on his verse-novel ''Eugene Onegin''. In Mikhaylovskoye, in 1825, Pushkin wrote the poem ''To***''. It is generally believed that he dedicated this poem to
Anna Kern Anna Petrovna Kern (, (Полторацкая), name after second marriage: Markova-Vinogradskaya (Маркова-Виноградская); – ) was a Russian socialite and memoirist, notable as the addressee of a noted love poem written by ...
, but there are other opinions. Poet Mikhail Dudin believed that the poem was dedicated to the serf Olga Kalashnikova.Vadim Nikolayev. To whom «Magic Moment» has been dedicated?
Pushkinist Kira Victorova believed that the poem was dedicated to the Empress Elizaveta Alekseyevna. Vadim Nikolayev argued that the idea about the Empress was marginal and refused to discuss it, while trying to prove that poem had been dedicated to Tatyana Larina, the heroine of ''Eugene Onegin''. During that same year (1825) Pushkin also wrote what would become his most famous play, the drama ''
Boris Godunov Boris Feodorovich Godunov (; ; ) was the ''de facto'' regent of Russia from 1585 to 1598 and then tsar from 1598 to 1605 following the death of Feodor I, the last of the Rurik dynasty. After the end of Feodor's reign, Russia descended into t ...
'', while at his mother's estate. He could not, however, gain permission to publish it until five years later. The original and uncensored version of the drama was not staged until 2007. Authorities summoned Pushkin to Moscow after his poem '' Ode to Liberty'' was found among the belongings of the rebels from the Decembrist Uprising (1825). After his exile in 1820 Pushkin's friends and family continually petitioned for his release, sending letters and meeting
Emperor Alexander I Alexander I (, ; – ), nicknamed "the Blessed", was Emperor of Russia from 1801, the first king of Congress Poland from 1815, and the grand duke of Finland from 1809 to his death in 1825. He ruled Russia during the chaotic period of the Napoleo ...
and then
Emperor Nicholas I Nicholas I, group=pron (Russian language, Russian: Николай I Павлович; – ) was Emperor of Russia, List of rulers of Partitioned Poland#Kings of the Kingdom of Poland, King of Congress Poland, and Grand Duke of Finland from 18 ...
on the heels of the Decembrist Uprising. Many of the Decembrists were his friends and fellow writers; Pushkin was known widely for his belief in freedom from political and moral oppression, but the Decembrists did not trust him because “he had a big mouth” and was known to be impulsive and egotistical. Upon meeting
Emperor Nicholas I Nicholas I, group=pron (Russian language, Russian: Николай I Павлович; – ) was Emperor of Russia, List of rulers of Partitioned Poland#Kings of the Kingdom of Poland, King of Congress Poland, and Grand Duke of Finland from 18 ...
Pushkin obtained his release from exile and began to work as the emperor's Titular Counsel of the National Archives. However, because insurgents in the Decembrist Uprising (1825) in Saint Petersburg had kept some of Pushkin's earlier political poems, the emperor retained strict control of everything Pushkin published and he was banned from travelling at will. Pushkin’s conversation with Nicholas I is not known to us, and it can only be restored from Pushkin’s later statements. After this conversation Pushkin became a supporter of Nicholas I. It was not the betrayal of Pushkin’s social ideals, it was his confidence that in the personality of Nicholas I Russia had a conductor of those events that put it forward in the direction dictated precisely by these social ideals, joined by a feeling of personal gratitude to Nicholas, who had freed the poet from exile. This attitude was vividly expressed in the stanzas: “No, I am not a flatterer when I compose free praise to the Tsar”. Pushkin's patriotic poem '' To the Slanderers of Russia'' written during the 1830–1831 Polish uprising aroused hostility among some of the Russian liberals. Around 1825–1829 he met and befriended the Polish poet
Adam Mickiewicz Adam Bernard Mickiewicz (24 December 179826 November 1855) was a Polish poet, dramatist, essayist, publicist, translator and political activist. He is regarded as national poet in Poland, Lithuania and Belarus. He also largely influenced Ukra ...
, during exile in central Russia.
Kazimierz Wyka Kazimierz Wyka (19 March 1910 – 19 January 1975) was a Polish literary historian, literary critic, and professor at the Jagiellonian University in Kraków following World War II. He was a deputy to the Polish parliament (Sejm) from 1952 to 1956 ...
, ''Mickiewicz Adam Bernard'', Polski Słownik Biograficzny, Tome XX, 1975, p. 696
In 1829 he travelled through the Caucasus to
Erzurum Erzurum (; ) is a List of cities in Turkey, city in eastern Anatolia, Turkey. It is the largest city and capital of Erzurum Province and is 1,900 meters (6,233 feet) above sea level. Erzurum had a population of 367,250 in 2010. It is the site of an ...
to visit friends fighting in the Russian army during the
Russo-Turkish War The Russo-Turkish wars ( ), or the Russo-Ottoman wars (), began in 1568 and continued intermittently until 1918. They consisted of twelve conflicts in total, making them one of the longest series of wars in the history of Europe. All but four of ...
. At the end of 1829 Pushkin wanted to set off on a journey abroad, the desire reflected in his poem ''Let's go, I'm ready''. He applied for permission for the journey but received negative response from Nicholas I on 17 January 1830. Around 1828 Pushkin met
Natalia Goncharova Natalia Sergeevna Goncharova (, ; 3 July 188117 October 1962) was a Russian avant-garde artist, painter, costume designer, writer, illustrator, and set designer. Goncharova's lifelong partner was fellow Russian avant-garde artist Mikhail Lariono ...
, then 16 years old and one of the most talked-about beauties of Moscow. After much hesitation Natalia accepted a proposal of marriage from Pushkin in April 1830, but not before she received assurances that the Tsarist government had no intention of persecuting the libertarian poet. Later Pushkin and his wife became regulars of court society. They officially became engaged on 6 May 1830 and sent out wedding invitations. Owing to an outbreak of
cholera Cholera () is an infection of the small intestine by some Strain (biology), strains of the Bacteria, bacterium ''Vibrio cholerae''. Symptoms may range from none, to mild, to severe. The classic symptom is large amounts of watery diarrhea last ...
and other circumstances, the wedding was delayed for a year. The ceremony took place on 18 February 1831 (Old Style) in the
Great Ascension Church The Greater Church of Christ's Ascension (Большое Вознесение) is one of the largest parish churches in downtown Moscow. It is a major landmark of Bolshaya Nikitskaya Street and Nikitskiye Vorota Square. It is named "greater" to ...
on
Bolshaya Nikitskaya Street Bolshaya Nikitskaya Street (, ''Nikitskaya Ulitsa'') is a radial street that runs west from Mokhovaya Street to Garden Ring in Moscow, between Vozdvizhenka Street (south) and Tverskaya Street (north). Central, eastern part of the street is not ...
in Moscow. Pushkin's marriage to Goncharova was largely a happy one, but his wife’s characteristic flirtatiousness and frivolity would lead to his fatal duel seven years later, for Pushkin had a highly jealous temperament. In 1831, during the period of Pushkin's growing literary influence, he met one of Russia's other influential early writers,
Nikolai Gogol Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol; ; (; () was a Russian novelist, short story writer, and playwright of Ukrainian origin. Gogol used the Grotesque#In literature, grotesque in his writings, for example, in his works "The Nose (Gogol short story), ...
. After reading Gogol's 1831–1832 volume of short stories ''
Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka ''Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka'' () is a collection of short stories by Nikolai Gogol, written in 1829–1832. They appeared in various magazines and were published in book form when Gogol was twenty-two. The collection's frame story takes pl ...
'', Pushkin supported him and would feature some of Gogol's most famous short stories in the magazine '' The Contemporary'', which he founded in 1836.


Death

By the autumn of 1836, Pushkin was falling into greater and greater debt and faced scandalous rumours that his wife was having a love affair. On 4 November, he sent a challenge to a duel to
Georges d'Anthès Georges may refer to: Places *Georges River, New South Wales, Australia * Georges Quay (Dublin) *Georges Township, Fayette County, Pennsylvania Other uses * Georges (name) * ''Georges'' (novel), a novel by Alexandre Dumas * "Georges" (song), a 19 ...
, also known as Dantes-Gekkern. Jacob van Heeckeren, d'Anthès' adoptive father, asked that the duel be delayed by two weeks. With efforts by the poet's friends, the duel was cancelled. On 17 November, d'Anthès proposed to Natalia Goncharova's sister, Ekaterina. The marriage did not resolve the conflict. D'Anthès continued to pursue Natalia Goncharova in public and rumours circulated that d'Anthès had married Natalia's sister just to save her reputation. On 26 January (7 February in the Gregorian calendar) 1837 Pushkin sent a "highly insulting letter" to Gekkern. The only answer to that letter could be a challenge to a duel, as Pushkin knew. Pushkin received the formal challenge to a duel through his sister-in-law, Ekaterina Gekkerna, approved by d'Anthès, on the same day through the attaché of the French Embassy, Viscount d'Archiac. Pushkin asked Arthur Magenis, then attaché to the British Consulate-General in Saint Petersburg, to be his second. Magenis did not formally accept but on 26 January (7 February) approached Viscount d'Archiac to attempt a reconciliation; however d'Archiac refused to speak with him as he was not yet officially Pushkin's second. Magenis, unable to find Pushkin in the evening, sent him a letter through a messenger at 2 o'clock in the morning declining to be his second, as the possibility of a peaceful settlement had already been quashed, and the traditional first task of the second was to try to bring about a reconciliation. The pistol duel with d'Anthès took place on 27 January (8 February) at the Black River, without the presence of a second for Pushkin. The duel they fought was of a kind known as a "barrier duel". The rules of this type dictated that the duellists began at an agreed distance. After the signal to begin, they walked towards each other, closing the distance. They could fire at any time they wished, but the duellist that shot first was required to stand still and wait for the other to shoot back at his leisure. D'Anthès fired first, critically wounding Pushkin; the bullet entered at his hip and penetrated his abdomen. D'Anthès was only lightly wounded in the right arm by Pushkin's shot. Two days later, at 2.45 pm on 29 January (10 February), Pushkin died of
peritonitis Peritonitis is inflammation of the localized or generalized peritoneum, the lining of the inner wall of the abdomen and covering of the abdominal organs. Symptoms may include severe pain, swelling of the abdomen, fever, or weight loss. One pa ...
. In
Fyodor Dostoevsky Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky. () was a Russian novelist, short story writer, essayist and journalist. He is regarded as one of the greatest novelists in both Russian and world literature, and many of his works are considered highly influent ...
's novel
The Idiot ''The Idiot'' (Reforms of Russian orthography, pre-reform Russian: ; post-reform ) is a novel by the 19th-century Russian author Fyodor Dostoevsky. It was first published serially in the journal ''The Russian Messenger'' in 1868–1869. The titl ...
, a character suggests that the shot was accidental: ‘The bullet hit so low that d’Anthès was probably aiming somewhere higher, the chest or the head; nobody aims where that bullet hit, that means it probably hit Pushkin by chance, a fluke. I’ve been told that by people who know.’ At Pushkin's wife's request he was put in the coffin in evening dress, not in chamber-cadet uniform, the uniform provided by the emperor. The funeral service was initially assigned to St Isaac's Cathedral but was moved to Konyushennaya church. Many people attended. After the funeral the coffin was lowered into the basement, where it stayed until 3 February, when it was removed to Pskov province. Pushkin was buried in the grounds of Svyatogorsky monastery in present-day
Pushkinskiye Gory Pushkinskiye Gory () is an urban locality (a work settlement) and the administrative center of Pushkinogorsky District of Pskov Oblast, Russia. Municipally, it is incorporated as Pushkinogorye Urban Settlement, the only urban settlement in the d ...
, near Pskov, beside his mother. His last home is now a
museum A museum is an institution dedicated to displaying or Preservation (library and archive), preserving culturally or scientifically significant objects. Many museums have exhibitions of these objects on public display, and some have private colle ...
.


Descendants

Pushkin had four children from his marriage to Natalia: Maria (b. 1832), Alexander (b. 1833), Grigory (b. 1835) and Natalia (b. 1836), the last of whom married
morganatically Morganatic marriage, sometimes called a left-handed marriage, is a marriage between people of unequal social rank, which in the context of royalty or other inherited title prevents the principal's position or privileges being passed to the spouse ...
Prince Nikolaus Wilhelm of Nassau Prince Nikolaus Wilhelm of Nassau (20 September 1832 – 17 September 1905) was a German prince, military officer and parliamentarian. He was the youngest son of William, Duke of Nassau, and the only son by his second wife Princess Pauline of Wü ...
of the
House of Nassau-Weilburg The House of Nassau-Weilburg, a branch of the House of Nassau, ruled a division of the County of Nassau, which was a state in what is now Germany, then part of the Holy Roman Empire, from 1344 to 1806. On 17 July 1806, upon the dissolution of t ...
and was granted the title of Countess of Merenberg. Her daughter
Sophie Sophie is a feminine given name, another version of Sophia, from the Greek word for "wisdom". People with the name Born in the Middle Ages * Sophie, Countess of Bar (c. 1004 or 1018–1093), sovereign Countess of Bar and lady of Mousson * Soph ...
married
Grand Duke Michael Mikhailovich of Russia Grand Duke Michael Mikhailovich of Russia (Russian: Михаил Михайлович; 16 October 1861 – 26 April 1929) was a son of Grand Duke Michael Nicolaievich of Russia and a grandson of Tsar Nicholas I of Russia. He was raised in the ...
, a grandson of Emperor Nicholas I. Only the lines of Alexander and Natalia still remain. Natalia's granddaughter, Nadejda, married into the extended British royal family, her husband being the uncle of
Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (born Prince Philip of Greece and Denmark, later Philip Mountbatten; 10 June 19219 April 2021), was the husband of Queen Elizabeth II. As such, he was the consort of the British monarch from h ...
, and is the grandmother of the present Marquess of Milford Haven. Descendants of the poet now live around the globe in the United Kingdom, the Czech Republic, Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg and the United States.


Legacy


Literary

Critics consider many of his works masterpieces, such as the poem ''
The Bronze Horseman The ''Bronze Horseman'' (, literally "copper horseman") is an equestrian statue of Peter the Great in the Senate Square in Saint Petersburg, Russia. It was opened to the public on 7 (18) August 1782. Commissioned by Catherine the Great, it was ...
'' and the drama '' The Stone Guest'', a tale of the fall of
Don Juan Don Juan (), also known as Don Giovanni ( Italian), is a legendary fictional Spanish libertine who devotes his life to seducing women. The original version of the story of Don Juan appears in the 1630 play (''The Trickster of Seville and t ...
. His poetic short drama '' Mozart and Salieri'' (like ''The Stone Guest'', one of the so-called four ''Little Tragedies'', a collective characterization by Pushkin himself in 1830 letter to
Pyotr Pletnyov Pyotr Alexandrovich Pletnyov (; , in Tebleshi, Tver Governorate – ) was a minor Russian poet and literary critic, who rose to become the dean of the Saint Petersburg University (1840–61) and academician of the Petersburg Academy of Scie ...
) was the inspiration for
Peter Shaffer Sir Peter Levin Shaffer (15 May 1926 – 6 June 2016) was an English playwright, screenwriter, and novelist. He is best known for the plays '' Equus'' and '' Amadeus'', the latter of which was adapted for the screen by Miloš Forman, with an ...
's ''
Amadeus Amadeus may refer to: People and fictional characters * Amadeus (name) Amadeus is a theophoric name, theophoric given name derived from the Latin words ' – the Imperative mood, imperative of the word ' ("to love") – and ' ("god"). As a Compou ...
'' as well as providing the libretto (almost verbatim) to
Rimsky-Korsakov Nikolai Andreyevich Rimsky-Korsakov. At the time, his name was spelled , which he romanized as Nicolas Rimsky-Korsakow; the BGN/PCGN transliteration of Russian is used for his name here; ALA-LC system: , ISO 9 system: .. (18 March 1844 – 2 ...
's opera '' Mozart and Salieri''. Pushkin is also known for his short stories. In particular his cycle ''
The Tales of the Late Ivan Petrovich Belkin ''The Tales of the Late Ivan Petrovich Belkin'' (, 1831) is a series of five novelettes and a fictional editorial introduction by Russian author Aleksandr Pushkin. The five novelettes, while very different, are united by the image of their fict ...
'', including
The Shot The Shot was a game-winning jumpshot by Michael Jordan and the Chicago Bulls during a 1989 playoff game between the Bulls and Cleveland Cavaliers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). It took place on May 7, 1989, at Richfield Coliseu ...
, were well received. According to the literary theorist Kornelije Kvas,
"the narrative logic and the plausibility of that which is narrated, together with the precision, conciseness – economy of the presentation of reality – all of the above is achieved in ''Tales of Belkin'', especially, and most of all in the story ''The Stationmaster''. Pushkin is the progenitor of the long and fruitful development of Russian realist literature, for he manages to attain the realist ideal of a concise presentation of reality".
Pushkin himself preferred his verse novel ''
Eugene Onegin ''Eugene Onegin, A Novel in Verse'' (, Reforms of Russian orthography, pre-reform Russian: Евгеній Онѣгинъ, романъ въ стихахъ, ) is a novel in verse written by Alexander Pushkin. ''Onegin'' is considered a classic of ...
'', which he wrote over the course of his life and which, starting a tradition of great Russian novels, follows a few central characters but varies widely in tone and focus. ''Onegin'' is a work of such complexity that, though it is only about a hundred pages long, translator
Vladimir Nabokov Vladimir Vladimirovich Nabokov ( ; 2 July 1977), also known by the pen name Vladimir Sirin (), was a Russian and American novelist, poet, translator, and entomologist. Born in Imperial Russia in 1899, Nabokov wrote his first nine novels in Rus ...
needed two full volumes of material to fully render its meaning into English. Because of this difficulty in translation, Pushkin's verse remains largely unknown to English readers. Even so Pushkin has profoundly influenced western writers such as
Henry James Henry James ( – ) was an American-British author. He is regarded as a key transitional figure between literary realism and literary modernism, and is considered by many to be among the greatest novelists in the English language. He was the ...
.Joseph S. O'Leary, ”Pushkin in 'The Aspern Papers”. ''The Henry James E-Journal'' Number 2, March 2000
. Retrieved 24 November 2006.
Pushkin wrote The Queen of Spades, a short story frequently anthologized in English translation.


Musical

Pushkin's works also provided fertile ground for Russian composers. Glinka's '' Ruslan and Lyudmila'' is the earliest important Pushkin-inspired opera, and a landmark in the tradition of Russian music.
Tchaikovsky Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky ( ; 7 May 1840 – 6 November 1893) was a Russian composer during the Romantic period. He was the first Russian composer whose music made a lasting impression internationally. Tchaikovsky wrote some of the most popular ...
's operas ''
Eugene Onegin ''Eugene Onegin, A Novel in Verse'' (, Reforms of Russian orthography, pre-reform Russian: Евгеній Онѣгинъ, романъ въ стихахъ, ) is a novel in verse written by Alexander Pushkin. ''Onegin'' is considered a classic of ...
'' (1879) and '' The Queen of Spades'' (''Pikovaya Dama'', 1890) became perhaps better known outside of Russia than Pushkin's own works of the same name.
Mussorgsky Modest Petrovich Mussorgsky (; ; ; – ) was a Russian composer, one of the group known as "The Five (composers), The Five." He was an innovator of Music of Russia, Russian music in the Romantic music, Romantic period and strove to achieve a ...
's monumental ''
Boris Godunov Boris Feodorovich Godunov (; ; ) was the ''de facto'' regent of Russia from 1585 to 1598 and then tsar from 1598 to 1605 following the death of Feodor I, the last of the Rurik dynasty. After the end of Feodor's reign, Russia descended into t ...
'' (two versions, 1868–9 and 1871–2) ranks as one of the very finest and most original of Russian operas. Other Russian operas based on Pushkin include Dargomyzhsky's ''
Rusalka In Slavic folklore, the rusalka (plural: rusalki; , plural: русалки; , plural: ''rusałki'') is a female entity, often malicious toward mankind and frequently associated with water. It has counterparts in other parts of Europe, such as th ...
'' and '' The Stone Guest'';
Rimsky-Korsakov Nikolai Andreyevich Rimsky-Korsakov. At the time, his name was spelled , which he romanized as Nicolas Rimsky-Korsakow; the BGN/PCGN transliteration of Russian is used for his name here; ALA-LC system: , ISO 9 system: .. (18 March 1844 – 2 ...
's '' Mozart and Salieri'', '' Tale of Tsar Saltan'', and ''
The Golden Cockerel ''The Golden Cockerel'' ( ) is an opera in three acts, with a short prologue and an even shorter epilogue, composed by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, his last complete opera, before his death in 1908. Its libretto written by Vladimir Belsky, is derive ...
''; Cui's '' Prisoner of the Caucasus'', '' Feast in Time of Plague'', and ''
The Captain's Daughter ''The Captain's Daughter'' () is a historical novel by the Russian writer Alexander Pushkin. It was first published in 1836 in the fourth issue of the literary journal '' Sovremennik'' and is his only completed novel. The novel is a romanticize ...
'';
Tchaikovsky Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky ( ; 7 May 1840 – 6 November 1893) was a Russian composer during the Romantic period. He was the first Russian composer whose music made a lasting impression internationally. Tchaikovsky wrote some of the most popular ...
's ''
Mazeppa Mazepa or Mazeppa is the surname of Ivan Mazepa, a Ukrainian hetman made famous worldwide by a poem by Lord Byron. It may refer to: Artistic works Poems * Mazeppa (poem), "Mazeppa" (poem) (1819), a dramatic poem by Lord Byron * "Mazeppa", a poem b ...
'';
Rachmaninoff Sergei Vasilyevich Rachmaninoff; in Russian pre-revolutionary script. (28 March 1943) was a Russian composer, virtuoso pianist, and conductor. Rachmaninoff is widely considered one of the finest pianists of his day and, as a composer, one of ...
's one-act operas ''
Aleko The Moskvitch-2141, also known under the trade name Aleko (Russian: "АЛЕКО", derivative from the name of the automaker "Автомобильный завод имени Ленинского Комсомола", ''Avtomobilnyj zavod imeni Len ...
'' (based on ''The Gypsies'') and ''
The Miserly Knight ''The Miserly Knight'', Op. 24, also ''The Covetous Knight'' (, ''Skupój rýtsar’''), is a Russian opera in one act with music by Sergei Rachmaninoff, with the libretto based on Alexander Pushkin's drama of the same name. It contains roles for f ...
'';
Stravinsky Igor Fyodorovich Stravinsky ( – 6 April 1971) was a Russian composer and conductor with French citizenship (from 1934) and American citizenship (from 1945). He is widely considered one of the most important and influential composers of ...
's '' Mavra'', and Nápravník's '' Dubrovsky''. Additionally, ballets and
cantata A cantata (; ; literally "sung", past participle feminine singular of the Italian language, Italian verb ''cantare'', "to sing") is a vocal music, vocal Musical composition, composition with an musical instrument, instrumental accompaniment, ty ...
s, as well as innumerable
songs A song is a musical composition performed by the human voice. The voice often carries the melody (a series of distinct and fixed pitches) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs have a structure, such as the common ABA form, and are usuall ...
, have been set to Pushkin's verse (including even his French-language poems, in Isabelle Aboulker's
song cycle A song cycle () is a group, or cycle (music), cycle, of individually complete Art song, songs designed to be performed in sequence, as a unit.Susan Youens, ''Grove online'' The songs are either for solo voice or an ensemble, or rarely a combinat ...
" Caprice étrange"). Suppé,
Leoncavallo Ruggero (or Ruggiero) Leoncavallo (23 April 18579 August 1919) was an Italian opera composer and librettist. Throughout his career, Leoncavallo produced numerous operas and songs but it is his 1892 opera ''Pagliacci'' that remained his lasting co ...
and Malipiero have also based operas on his works. Composers Yudif Grigorevna Rozhavskaya,
Galina Konstantinovna Smirnova Galina Konstantinovna Smirnova (20 January 1910 - 1980) was a Russian composer, musicologist, and radio music editor who used folk songs in her compositions and composed at least one film score. Smirnova was born in Moscow. She studied at the Mos ...
,
Yevgania Yosifovna Yakhina Soviet composer Yevgania Yosifovna Yakhina (1918 – 1983) was born in Kharkiv (today part of Ukraine). She studied composition under Vissarion Shebalin at the Moscow Conservatory, graduating in 1945. She taught at the Moscow School of Music from 19 ...
, Maria Semyonovna Zavalishina,
Zinaida Petrovna Ziberova Zinaida Petrovna Ziberova (born 1909) was a pianist, conductor, and composer who was born in Darmstadt, Germany, and lived most of her life in Rostov-on-Don, Russia. Ziberova moved to Rostov-on-Don in 1925, where she attended music school and stud ...
composed folk songs using Pushkin's text. ''The Desire of Glory'', which has been dedicated to Elizaveta Vorontsova, was set to music by
David Tukhmanov David Fyodorovich Tukhmanov PAR (, was born July 20, 1940) is a Soviet and Russian composer. People's Artist of Russia (2000), State Prize of Russian Federation (2003, 2019). Biography Tukhmanov is a son of an Armenian engineer Fyodor David ...
, as well as ''Keep Me, Mine Talisman'' – by
Alexander Barykin Aleksander Aleksandrovich Barykin (Byrykin) (; February 18, 1952 — March 26, 2011) was a Soviet and Russian singer and songwriter. Biography Alexander Barykin was born on February 18, 1952, in Beryozovo ( Khanty-Mansia). He was a young boy w ...
and later by Tukhmanov.


Romanticism

Pushkin is considered by many to be the central representative of Romanticism in Russian literature; however, he was not unequivocally known as a Romantic. Russian critics have traditionally argued that his works represent a path from
Neoclassicism Neoclassicism, also spelled Neo-classicism, emerged as a Western cultural movement in the decorative arts, decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that drew inspiration from the art and culture of classical antiq ...
through Romanticism to
Realism Realism, Realistic, or Realists may refer to: In the arts *Realism (arts), the general attempt to depict subjects truthfully in different forms of the arts Arts movements related to realism include: *American Realism *Classical Realism *Liter ...
. An alternative assessment suggests that "he had an ability to entertain contrarities which may seem Romantic in origin, but are ultimately subversive of all fixed points of view, all single outlooks, including the Romantic" and that "he is simultaneously Romantic and not Romantic".


Russian literature

Pushkin is usually credited with developing Russian literature. He is seen as having originated the highly nuanced level of language which characterizes Russian literature after him, and he is also credited with substantially augmenting the Russian lexicon. Whenever he found gaps in the Russian vocabulary, he devised
calque In linguistics, a calque () or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal word-for-word or root-for-root translation. When used as a verb, "to calque" means to borrow a word or phrase from another language ...
s. His rich vocabulary and highly-sensitive style are the foundation for modern Russian literature. His accomplishments set new records for development of the Russian language and culture. He became the father of Russian literature in the 19th century, marking the highest achievements of the 18th century and the beginning of literary process of the 19th century. He introduced Russia to all the European literary genres as well as a great number of West European writers. He brought natural speech and foreign influences to create modern poetic Russian. Though his life was brief, he left examples of nearly every literary genre of his day: lyric poetry, narrative poetry, the novel, the short story, the drama, the critical essay and even the personal letter. According to
Vladimir Nabokov Vladimir Vladimirovich Nabokov ( ; 2 July 1977), also known by the pen name Vladimir Sirin (), was a Russian and American novelist, poet, translator, and entomologist. Born in Imperial Russia in 1899, Nabokov wrote his first nine novels in Rus ...
,
Pushkin's
idiom An idiom is a phrase or expression that largely or exclusively carries a Literal and figurative language, figurative or non-literal meaning (linguistic), meaning, rather than making any literal sense. Categorized as formulaic speech, formulaic ...
combined all the contemporaneous elements of Russian with all he had learned from Derzhavin, Zhukovsky, Batyushkov,
Karamzin The Karamzin family is a noted Russian noble family of Tatar origin. It originates from the Tatar name Kara-Murza, meaning ''black lord''. Karamzin () is also a Russian masculine surname, its feminine counterpart is Karamzina. Notable members ...
and
Krylov Krylov (masculine; ) and Krylova (feminine; ) is a Russian surname, derived from the word "''крыло́"'' (wing). Alternative spellings are Krilov, Kryloff, Kriloff (masculine) and Krilova (feminine). People * Alexei Krylov (1863–1945), Rus ...
: # The poetical and
metaphysical Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that examines the basic structure of reality. It is traditionally seen as the study of mind-independent features of the world, but some theorists view it as an inquiry into the conceptual framework of h ...
strain that still lived in
Church Slavonic Church Slavonic is the conservative Slavic liturgical language used by the Eastern Orthodox Church in Belarus, Bulgaria, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Poland, Russia, Ukraine, Serbia, the Czech Republic and Slovakia, Slovenia and Croatia. The ...
forms and locutions # Abundant and natural
gallicism A Gallicism can be: * a mode of speech peculiar to the French; * a French idiom; * in general, a French mode or custom. * a loanword, word or phrase borrowed from French. See also * Francization * Franglais * Gallic (disambiguation) * Gallican ...
s # Everyday
colloquialism Colloquialism (also called ''colloquial language'', ''colloquial speech'', ''everyday language'', or ''general parlance'') is the linguistic style used for casual and informal communication. It is the most common form of speech in conversation amo ...
s of his set # Stylized popular speech by combining the famous three styles (low, medium elevation, high) dear to the pseudoclassical archaists and adding the ingredients of Russian romanticists with a pinch of
parody A parody is a creative work designed to imitate, comment on, and/or mock its subject by means of satire, satirical or irony, ironic imitation. Often its subject is an Originality, original work or some aspect of it (theme/content, author, style, e ...
.
His work as a critic and as a journalist marked the birth of Russian magazine culture which included him devising and contributing heavily to one of the most influential literary magazines of the 19th century, the ''Sovremennik'' (''The Contemporary'', or ''Современник''). Pushkin inspired the folk tales and genre pieces of other authors: Leskov,
Yesenin Sergei Alexandrovich Yesenin (, ; 1895 – 28 December 1925), sometimes spelled as Esenin, was a Russian lyric poet. He is one of the most popular and well-known Russian poets of the 20th century. One of his narratives was "lyrical evocations ...
and Gorky. His use of Russian formed the basis of the style of novelists
Ivan Turgenev Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev ( ; rus, links=no, Иван Сергеевич ТургеневIn Turgenev's day, his name was written ., p=ɪˈvan sʲɪrˈɡʲe(j)ɪvʲɪtɕ tʊrˈɡʲenʲɪf; – ) was a Russian novelist, short story writer, poe ...
,
Ivan Goncharov Ivan Aleksandrovich Goncharov ( , ; rus, Ива́н Алекса́ндрович Гончаро́в, r=Iván Aleksándrovich Goncharóv, p=ɪˈvan ɐlʲɪkˈsandrəvʲɪdʑ ɡənʲtɕɪˈrof; – ) was a Russian novelist best known for his n ...
and
Leo Tolstoy Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy Tolstoy pronounced his first name as , which corresponds to the romanization ''Lyov''. () (; ,Throughout Tolstoy's whole life, his name was written as using Reforms of Russian orthography#The post-revolution re ...
, as well as that of subsequent lyric poets such as
Mikhail Lermontov Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov ( , ; rus, Михаи́л Ю́рьевич Ле́рмонтов, , mʲɪxɐˈil ˈjʉrʲjɪvʲɪtɕ ˈlʲerməntəf, links=yes; – ) was a Russian Romanticism, Romantic writer, poet and painter, sometimes called ...
. Pushkin was analysed by
Nikolai Gogol Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol; ; (; () was a Russian novelist, short story writer, and playwright of Ukrainian origin. Gogol used the Grotesque#In literature, grotesque in his writings, for example, in his works "The Nose (Gogol short story), ...
, his successor and pupil, and the great Russian critic
Vissarion Belinsky Vissarion Grigoryevich Belinsky (; Pre-reform spelling: Виссаріонъ Григорьевичъ Бѣлинскій. – ) was a Russian literary critic of Westernizing tendency. Belinsky played one of the key roles in the career of p ...
, who produced the fullest and deepest critical study of Pushkin's work, which still retains much of its relevance.


Soviet centennial celebrations

In the centennial year of Pushkin's death in 1937, a mass renaming of streets across the entire
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
occurred in his honour. Prior to 2022, Pushkin was the third most common historical figure represented in Ukraine’s streets; however, his monuments were removed and streets bearing his name were renamed following the
Russian invasion of Ukraine On 24 February 2022, , starting the largest and deadliest war in Europe since World War II, in a major escalation of the Russo-Ukrainian War, conflict between the two countries which began in 2014. The fighting has caused hundreds of thou ...
.



These monuments, along with any
toponymy Toponymy, toponymics, or toponomastics is the study of '' toponyms'' ( proper names of places, also known as place names and geographic names), including their origins, meanings, usage, and types. ''Toponym'' is the general term for a proper na ...
named after him, are now illegal in
Ukraine Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the List of European countries by area, second-largest country in Europe after Russia, which Russia–Ukraine border, borders it to the east and northeast. Ukraine also borders Belarus to the nor ...
following the implementation of a law that bans symbols "dedicated to persons who publicly, including … in literary and other artistic works, supported, glorified, or justified
Russian imperial The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...
policy". The centennial of Pushkin's death in 1937 was one of the most significant literary commemorations of the Soviet era, second only to the 1928 centennial of
Leo Tolstoy Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy Tolstoy pronounced his first name as , which corresponds to the romanization ''Lyov''. () (; ,Throughout Tolstoy's whole life, his name was written as using Reforms of Russian orthography#The post-revolution re ...
's birth. Although Pushkin's image was prominently displayed in Soviet propaganda, from billboards to candy wrappers, it conflicted with the ideal Soviet persona. Pushkin was reputed as a
libertine A libertine is a person questioning and challenging most moral principles, such as responsibility or Human sexual activity, sexual restraints, and will often declare these traits as unnecessary, undesirable or evil. A libertine is especially som ...
with aristocratic tendencies, which clashed with Soviet values and led to a form of repressive revisionism, akin to the Stalinist reworking of Tolstoy's
Christian anarchism Christian anarchism is a Christian movement in political theology that claims anarchism is inherent in Christianity and the Gospels. It is grounded in the belief that there is only one source of authority to which Christians are ultimately answ ...
.


Honours

*Shortly after Pushkin's death, contemporary Russian romantic poet
Mikhail Lermontov Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov ( , ; rus, Михаи́л Ю́рьевич Ле́рмонтов, , mʲɪxɐˈil ˈjʉrʲjɪvʲɪtɕ ˈlʲerməntəf, links=yes; – ) was a Russian Romanticism, Romantic writer, poet and painter, sometimes called ...
wrote "
Death of the Poet "Death of the Poet" () is an 1837 poem by Mikhail Lermontov, written in reaction to the death of Alexander Pushkin. Pushkin was mortally wounded in a duel on January 27, 1837, and died on the 29th. Lermontov began his first formulation of the poe ...
". The poem, which ended with a passage blaming the aristocracy being (as oppressors of freedom) the true culprits in Pushkin's death, was not published (nor could have been) but was informally circulated in St. Petersburg. Lermontov was arrested and exiled to a regiment in the Caucasus. *Montenegrin poet and ruler
Petar II Petrović-Njegoš Petar II Petrović-Njegoš ( sr-cyrl, Петар II Петровић-Његош, ;  – ), commonly referred to simply as Njegoš (), was a List of rulers of Montenegro, Prince-Bishop (''vladika'') of Montenegro, poet and philosopher whose ...
included in his 1846 poetry collection ''Ogledalo srpsko'' (The Serbian Mirror) a poetic ode to Pushkin, titled ''Sjeni Aleksandra Puškina''. *In 1929, Soviet writer, Leonid Grossman, published a novel, ''The d'Archiac Papers'', telling the story of Pushkin's death from the perspective of a French diplomat, being a participant and a witness of the fatal duel. The book describes him as a liberal and a victim of the Tsarist regime. In Poland the book was published under the title ''Death of the Poet''. *In 1937, the town of
Tsarskoye Selo Tsarskoye Selo (, , ) was the town containing a former residence of the Russian House of Romanov, imperial family and visiting nobility, located south from the center of Saint Petersburg. The residence now forms part of the Pushkin, Saint Peter ...
was renamed Pushkin in his honour. *There are several museums in Russia dedicated to Pushkin, including two in Moscow, one in Saint Petersburg, and a large complex in Mikhaylovskoye. *Pushkin's death was portrayed in the 2006 biographical film ''Pushkin: The Last Duel''. The film was directed by Natalya Bondarchuk. Pushkin was portrayed on screen by
Sergei Bezrukov Sergey Vitalyevich Bezrukov (; born 18 October 1973) is a Soviet and Russian film and stage actor, singer, People's Artist of Russia, the laureate of the State Prize of the Russian Federation. He currently works at Tabakov Studio (the theatre of ...
. *His life was dramatised in the 1951 Australian radio play ''
The Golden Cockerel ''The Golden Cockerel'' ( ) is an opera in three acts, with a short prologue and an even shorter epilogue, composed by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, his last complete opera, before his death in 1908. Its libretto written by Vladimir Belsky, is derive ...
'' * In 2000, the Statue of Alexander Pushkin (Washington, D.C.) was erected as part of a cultural exchange between the cities of Moscow and Washington. In return, a statue of the American poet
Walt Whitman Walter Whitman Jr. (; May 31, 1819 – March 26, 1892) was an American poet, essayist, and journalist; he also wrote two novels. He is considered one of the most influential poets in American literature and world literature. Whitman incor ...
was erected in Moscow. *The Pushkin Trust was established in 1987 by the Duchess of Abercorn to commemorate the creative legacy and spirit of her ancestor and to release the creativity and imagination of the children of Ireland by providing them with opportunities to communicate their thoughts, feelings and experiences. *A minor planet,
2208 Pushkin 8 (eight) is the natural number following 7 and preceding 9. Etymology English ''eight'', from Old English '', æhta'', Proto-Germanic ''*ahto'' is a direct continuation of Proto-Indo-European '' *oḱtṓ(w)-'', and as such cognate wi ...
, discovered in 1977 by Soviet astronomer
Nikolai Chernykh Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh ( rus, Никола́й Степа́нович Черны́х, , nʲɪkɐˈlaj sʲtʲɪˈpanəvʲɪtɕ tɕɪrˈnɨx, links=yes; 6 October 1931 – 25 May 2004Казакова, Р.К. Памяти Николая Сте ...
, is named after him. A crater on Mercury is also named in his honour. * MS ''Aleksandr Pushkin'', second ship of the Russian Ivan Franko class (also referred to as "poet" or "writer" class). * A station of Tashkent metro was named in his honour. * The Pushkin Hills and Pushkin Lake were named in his honour in
Ben Nevis Township Ben Nevis Township is an unincorporated geographic township in the Unorganized North part of Cochrane District in Northeastern Ontario, Canada. The township is named for Ben Nevis, the highest mountain in the British Isles. Sullivan Lake and L ...
, Cochrane District, in Ontario, Canada. * UN Russian Language Day, established by the United Nations in 2010 and celebrated each year on 6 June, was scheduled to coincide with Pushkin's birthday. * A statue of Pushkin was unveiled inside the
Mehan Garden Mehan Garden is an open space in Manila, Philippines. It was established in 1858 by the Spanish colonial authorities as a botanical garden, called the ''Jardín Botánico'', outside the walled city. History Botanical garden The garden establi ...
in Manila, Philippines to commemorate the Philippines–Russia relations in 2010. * The Alexander Pushkin diamond, the second largest found in Russia (Russia was at the time part of the USSR), was named after him. * On 28 November 2009, a Pushkin Monument was erected in
Asmara Asmara ( ), or Asmera (), is the capital and most populous city of Eritrea, in the country's Central Region (Eritrea), Central Region. It sits at an elevation of , making it the List of capital cities by altitude, sixth highest capital in the wo ...
, capital of
Eritrea Eritrea, officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in the Horn of Africa region of East Africa, with its capital and largest city being Asmara. It is bordered by Ethiopia in the Eritrea–Ethiopia border, south, Sudan in the west, and Dj ...
. * In 2005 a monument to Pushkin and his grandmother Maria Hannibal was commissioned by an enthusiast of Russian culture Just Rugel in Zakharovo, Russia. Sculptor V. Kozinin *In 2019, Moscow's
Sheremetyevo International Airport Sheremetyevo International Airport (, , Internal code: ШРМ) is one of four international airports that serve the city of Moscow. It is the busiest airport in Russia and the post-Soviet states, as well as the ninth-busiest airport in Euro ...
was named after Pushkin in accordance to the Great Names of Russia contest.


Works


Narrative poems

* 1820 – ''Ruslan i Ludmila (Руслан и Людмила)''; English translation: ''Ruslan and Ludmila (poem), Ruslan and Ludmila'' * 1820–21 – ''Kavkazskiy plennik (Кавказский пленник)''; English translation: '' The Prisoner of the Caucasus'' * 1821 – ''Gavriiliada (Гавриилиада)''; English translation: ''The Gabrieliad'' * 1821–22 – ''Bratia razboyniki (Братья разбойники)''; English translation: ''The Robber Brothers'' * 1823 – ''Bakhchisarayskiy fontan (Бахчисарайский фонтан)''; English translation: ''
The Fountain of Bakhchisaray ''The Fountain of Bakhchisaray'' (, ''Bakhchisaraiskiy fontan'') is a narrative poem by Alexander Pushkin, written from 1821 to 1823. Pushkin began writing ''The Fountain of Bakhchisaray'' in the spring of 1821, after having visited The ...
'' * 1824 – ''Tsygany (Цыганы)''; English translation: ''The Gypsies (poem), The Gypsies'' * 1825 – ''Graf Nulin (Граф Нулин)''; English translation: ''Count Nulin'' * 1829 – ''Poltava (poem), Poltava'' (Полтава) * 1830 – ''Domik v Kolomne (Домик в Коломне)''; English translation: ''The Little House in Kolomna (Pushkin), The Little House in Kolomna'' * 1833 – ''Andzhelo (Анджело)''; English translation: ''Angelo'' * 1833 – ''Medny vsadnik (Медный всадник)''; English translation: ''
The Bronze Horseman The ''Bronze Horseman'' (, literally "copper horseman") is an equestrian statue of Peter the Great in the Senate Square in Saint Petersburg, Russia. It was opened to the public on 7 (18) August 1782. Commissioned by Catherine the Great, it was ...
'' * 1825–1832 (1833) – ''Evgeniy Onegin (Евгений Онегин)''; English translation: ''
Eugene Onegin ''Eugene Onegin, A Novel in Verse'' (, Reforms of Russian orthography, pre-reform Russian: Евгеній Онѣгинъ, романъ въ стихахъ, ) is a novel in verse written by Alexander Pushkin. ''Onegin'' is considered a classic of ...
''


Drama

* 1825 – ''Boris Godunov (Борис Годунов)''; English translation by Alfred Hayes (poet), Alfred Hayes: ''
Boris Godunov Boris Feodorovich Godunov (; ; ) was the ''de facto'' regent of Russia from 1585 to 1598 and then tsar from 1598 to 1605 following the death of Feodor I, the last of the Rurik dynasty. After the end of Feodor's reign, Russia descended into t ...
'' * 1830 – ''Malenkie tragedii (Маленькие трагедии)''; English translation: ** ''Kamenny gost (Каменный гость)''; English translation: '' The Stone Guest'' ** ''Motsart i Salieri (Моцарт и Сальери)''; English translation: '' Mozart and Salieri'' ** ''Skupoy rytsar (Скупой рыцарь)''; English translations: ''
The Miserly Knight ''The Miserly Knight'', Op. 24, also ''The Covetous Knight'' (, ''Skupój rýtsar’''), is a Russian opera in one act with music by Sergei Rachmaninoff, with the libretto based on Alexander Pushkin's drama of the same name. It contains roles for f ...
'', or ''The Covetous Knight'' ** ''Pir vo vremya chumy (Пир во время чумы)''; English translation: ''A Feast in Time of Plague''


Fairy tales in verse

* 1822 – ''Царь Никита и сорок его дочерей''; English translation: ''Tsar Nikita and His Forty Daughters'' * 1825 – ''Жених''; English translation: ''The Robber Bridegroom (fairy tale), The Bridegroom'' * 1830 – ''Сказка о попе и о работнике его Балде''; English translation: ''The Tale of the Priest and of His Workman Balda'' * 1830 – ''Сказка о медведихе''; English translation: ''The Tale of the Female Bear'', or ''The Tale of the Bear'' (was not finished) * 1831 – ''Сказка о царе Салтане''; English translation: ''The Tale of Tsar Saltan'' * 1833 – ''Сказка о рыбаке и рыбке''; English translation: ''The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish'' * 1833 – ''Сказка о мертвой царевне''; English translation: ''The Tale of the Dead Princess'' * 1834 – ''Сказка о золотом петушке''; English translation: ''The Tale of the Golden Cockerel''


Short poems

* 1817 – " Ode to Liberty" * 1829 – "I Loved You (poem), I Loved You" * 1831 – " To the Slanderers of Russia"


Novels

* 1828 – ''Arap Petra Velikogo (Арап Петра Великого)''; English translation: ''The Moor of Peter the Great'', unfinished novel * 1829 – ''Roman v pis'makh (Роман в письмах)''; English translation: ''A Novel in Letters'', unfinished novel * 1836 – ''Kapitanskaya dochka (Капитанская дочка)''; English translation: ''The Captain's Daughter'', novel * 1836 – ''Roslavlev (Рославлев)''; English translation: ''Roslavlev (novel), Roslavlev'', unfinished novel * 1841 – ''Dubrovsky (Дубровский)''; English translation: ''Dubrovsky (novel), Dubrovsky'', unfinished novel


Short stories

* 1831 – ''Povesti pokoynogo Ivana Petrovicha Belkina (Повести покойного Ивана Петровича Белкина)''; English translation: ''The Tales of the Late Ivan Petrovich Belkin'' ** ''Vystrel (Выстрел)''; English translation: ''
The Shot The Shot was a game-winning jumpshot by Michael Jordan and the Chicago Bulls during a 1989 playoff game between the Bulls and Cleveland Cavaliers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). It took place on May 7, 1989, at Richfield Coliseu ...
'', short story ** ''Metel (Метель)''; English translation: ''The Blizzard'', short story ** ''Grobovschik (Гробовщик)''; English translation: ''The Undertaker'', short story ** ''Stantsionny smotritel (Станционный смотритель)''; English translation: ''The Stationmaster'', short story ** ''Baryshnya-krestianka (Барышня-крестьянка)''; English translation: ''The Squire's Daughter'', short story * 1834 – ''Pikovaya dama (Пиковая дама)''; English translation: '' The Queen of Spades'', short story * 1834 – ''Kirjali (Кирджали)''; English translation: ''Kirdzhali'', short story * 1837 – ''Istoria sela Goryuhina (История села Горюхина)''; English translation: ''The Story of the Village of Goryukhino'', unfinished short story * 1837 – ''Egypetskie nochi (Египетские ночи)''; English translation: '


Non-fiction

* 1834 – ''Istoria Pugachyova (История Пугачева)''; English translation: ''A History of Pugachev'', study of the Pugachev's Rebellion * 1836 – ''Puteshestvie v Arzrum (Путешествие в Арзрум)''; English translation: ''A Journey to Arzrum'', travel sketches


See also

* Anton Delvig * Aleksandra Ishimova * Fyodor Petrovich Tolstoy * ''Literaturnaya Gazeta'' * Pushkin Prize * Vasily Pushkin * Vladimir Dal * Kapiton Zelentsov, contemporary illustrator of Pushkin's novels * UN Russian Language Day


Notes


References


Further reading

* T. J. Binyon, Binyon, T.J. (2002) ''Pushkin: A Biography''. London: HarperCollins ; US edition: New York: Knopf, 2003 * Yuri Druzhnikov (2008) ''Prisoner of Russia: Alexander Pushkin and the Political Uses of Nationalism'', Transaction Publishers * Dunning, Chester, Emerson, Caryl, Fomichev, Sergei, Lotman, Lidiia, Wood, Antony (Translator) (2006
''The Uncensored Boris Godunov: The Case for Pushkin's Original Comedy''
University of Wisconsin Press * Elaine Feinstein, Feinstein, Elaine (ed.) (1999) ''After Pushkin: versions of the poems of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin by contemporary poets''. Manchester: Carcanet Press; London: Folio Society * Galgano Andrea (2014). ''The affective dynamics in the work and thought of Alexandr Pushkin'', Conference Proceedings, 17th World Congress of the World Association for Dynamic Psychiatry. Multidisciplinary Approach to and Treatment of Mental Disorders: Myth or Reality?, St. Petersburg, 14–17 May 2014, In Dynamische Psychiatrie. Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychotherapie, Psychoanalyse und Psychiatrie – International Journal for Psychoanalysis, Psychotherapy, and Psychiatry, Berlin: Pinel Verlag GmbH, 1–3, Nr. 266–68, 2015, pp. 176–91. * Jakowlew, Valentin. "Pushkin's Farewell Dinner in Paris" (Text in Russian) Koblenz (Germany): Fölbach, 2006, . * * Pogadaev, Victor (2003) ''Penyair Agung Rusia Pushkin dan Dunia Timur (The Great Russian Poet Pushkin and the Oriental World)''. Monograph Series. Centre For Civilisational Dialogue. University Malaya. 2003, * Henri Troyat, Troyat, Henri (1974) ''Pushkin. A Biography''. London: George Allen & Unwin. * Vitale, Serena (1998) ''Pushkin's button''; transl. from the Italian by Ann Goldstein (translator), Ann Goldstein. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux * DuVernet, M.A. (2014) ''Pushkin's Ode to Liberty''. US edition: Xlibris * Телетова, Н.К. (Teletova, N.K.) (2007) ''Забытые родственные связи А.С. Пушкина'' (''The forgotten family connections of A.S. Pushkin''). Saint Petersburg: Dorn * Markus Wolf, Wolfe, Markus (1998) ''Freemasonry in life and literature''. Munich: Otto Sagner ltd. * Wachtel, Michael. "Pushkin and the Wikipedia" ''Pushkin Review'' 12–13: 163–66, 2009–2010


External links

* * * *
Biographical essay on Pushkin.
By Mike Phillips, British Library (Pdf).
The ''Pushkin Review''
, annual journal of North American Pushkin Society. Retrieved 2010-10-19
English translations of Pushkin's poems
Retrieved 2013-04-26
English translation of "The Tale of the Female Bear"


* [http://www-users.york.ac.uk/~pml1/bronze_horseman/welcome.htm List of English translations of ''The Bronze Horseman'' with extracts]
Alexander Pushkin. Mozart and Saliery in English

Alexander Pushkin. Boris Godunov in English

Alexander Pushkin. The Bronze Horseman in English

Alexander Pushkin poetry
rus)

* *

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pushkin, Aleksandr Alexander Pushkin, 19th-century short story writers from the Russian Empire 19th-century translators from the Russian Empire Dramatists and playwrights from the Russian Empire Novelists from the Russian Empire Male writers from the Russian Empire Male poets from the Russian Empire Russian male dramatists and playwrights Russian male novelists Russian male short story writers Romantic poets French-language poets Italian–Russian translators Translators of Dante Alighieri Writers from Moscow Nobility from the Russian Empire Russian Freemasons Philhellenes Members of the Russian Academy Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum alumni People from the Russian Empire of African descent People from the Russian Empire of German descent People from the Russian Empire of Swedish descent People from Moscow Governorate Russian duellists Duelling fatalities 1799 births 1837 deaths Fantasy writers from the Russian Empire