''Aja'ib al-Makhluqat wa Ghara'ib al-Mawjudat'' () or ''The Wonders of Creatures and the Marvels of Creation'' is an important work of paradoxography and cosmography by

Zakariya al-Qazwini Zakariyya' al-Qazwini ( , ), also known as Qazvini (), (born in Qazvin, Iran, and died 1283), was a Cosmography, cosmographer and Geography in medieval Islam, geographer. He belonged to a family of jurists originally descended from Anas bin Mal ...

, who was born in Qazwin in 1203 shortly before the

Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire Between 1219 and 1221, the Mongol Empire, Mongol forces under Genghis Khan invaded the lands of the Khwarazmian Empire in Central Asia. The campaign, which followed Mongol conquest of the Qara Khitai, the annexation of the Qara Khitai Khanate ...

Background to the work

Qazwini's ''Aja'ib al-Makhluqat'' was criticized for being less than original. Substantial parts of his work are derivative of

Yaqut al-Hamawi Yāqūt Shihāb al-Dīn ibn-ʿAbdullāh al-Rūmī al-Ḥamawī (1179–1229) () was a Muslim scholar of Byzantine ancestry active during the late Abbasid period (12th–13th centuries). He is known for his , an influential work on geography con ...

's ''

Mu'jam al-Buldan Yāqūt Shihāb al-Dīn ibn-ʿAbdullāh al-Rūmī al-Ḥamawī (1179–1229) () was a Muslim scholar of Byzantine ancestry active during the late Abbasid period (12th–13th centuries). He is known for his , an influential work on geography con ...

''. Qazwini mentions fifty names as his sources, the most important of whom are old geographers and historians such as

Istakhri Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Muhammad al-Farisi al-Istakhri () (also ''Estakhri'', , i.e. from the Iranian city of Istakhr, b. – d. 346 AH/AD 957) was a 10th-century travel author and Islamic geographer who wrote valuable accounts in Arabic of ...

, Ahmad ibn Fadlan,

al-Masudi al-Masʿūdī (full name , ), –956, was a historian, geographer and traveler. He is sometimes referred to as the "Herodotus of the Arabs". A polymath and prolific author of over twenty works on theology, history (Islamic and universal), geo ...

Ibn Hawqal Muḥammad Abū’l-Qāsim Ibn Ḥawqal (), also known as Abū al-Qāsim b. ʻAlī Ibn Ḥawqal al-Naṣībī, born in Nisibis, Al-Jazira (caliphal province), Upper Mesopotamia; was a 10th-century Arab Muslim writer, geographer, and chronic ...

al-Biruni Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni (; ; 973after 1050), known as al-Biruni, was a Khwarazmian Iranian scholar and polymath during the Islamic Golden Age. He has been called variously "Father of Comparative Religion", "Father of modern ...

, Ibn al-Athir,

al-Maqdisi Shams al-Din Abu Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Abi Bakr, commonly known by the ''Nisba (onomastics), nisba'' al-Maqdisi or al-Muqaddasī, was a medieval Arab geographer, author of ''The Best Divisions in the Knowledge of the Regions'' and '' ...

, and al-Razi. Even though Qazwini's work is a compilation of known and unknown sources, it influenced later works of

Islamic cosmology Islamic cosmology is the cosmology of Islamic societies. Islamic cosmology is not a single unitary system, but is inclusive of a number of cosmological systems, including Quranic cosmology, the cosmology of the Hadith collections, as well as thos ...

and

Islamic geography Medieval Islamic geography and cartography refer to the study of geography and cartography in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age (variously dated between the 8th century and 16th century). Muslim scholars made advances to the map-mak ...

through its style and language. Qazwini's cosmography is not pure science but was intended to entertain its readers by enriching scientific explanations with stories and poetry.

Framework

Qazwini's cosmography consists of two parts, the first part is celestial, dealing with the

sphere A sphere (from Ancient Greek, Greek , ) is a surface (mathematics), surface analogous to the circle, a curve. In solid geometry, a sphere is the Locus (mathematics), set of points that are all at the same distance from a given point in three ...

s of the

heaven Heaven, or the Heavens, is a common Religious cosmology, religious cosmological or supernatural place where beings such as deity, deities, angels, souls, saints, or Veneration of the dead, venerated ancestors are said to originate, be throne, ...

with its inhabitants, the

angel An angel is a spiritual (without a physical body), heavenly, or supernatural being, usually humanoid with bird-like wings, often depicted as a messenger or intermediary between God (the transcendent) and humanity (the profane) in variou ...

s, and chronology.

Astronomical Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and the phenomena that occur in the cosmos. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and their overall evolution. Objects of interest include ...

knowledge of that time is compiled together with

astrological Astrology is a range of divinatory practices, recognized as pseudoscientific since the 18th century, that propose that information about human affairs and terrestrial events may be discerned by studying the apparent positions of celesti ...

ideas. The second part discusses the terrestrial: the

four elements The classical elements typically refer to earth, water, air, fire, and (later) aether which were proposed to explain the nature and complexity of all matter in terms of simpler substances. Ancient cultures in Greece, Angola, Tibet, India, a ...

, the seven climes, seas and rivers, a sort of

bestiary A bestiary () is a compendium of beasts. Originating in the ancient world, bestiaries were made popular in the Middle Ages in illustrated volumes that described various animals and even rocks. The natural history and illustration of each beas ...

on the animal kingdom (including mankind and the jinns), the plants, and minerals. He discusses here humanity and the faculties of his

soul The soul is the purported Mind–body dualism, immaterial aspect or essence of a Outline of life forms, living being. It is typically believed to be Immortality, immortal and to exist apart from the material world. The three main theories that ...

, his character, weaknesses and illnesses. The cosmography of Ahmad al-Tusi (Aḥmad al-Ṭūsī) is very similar and bears the same title; though the latter characterized by the concept of the

tawhid ''Tawhid'' () is the concept of monotheism in Islam, it is the religion's central and single most important concept upon which a Muslim's entire religious adherence rests. It unequivocally holds that God is indivisibly one (''ahad'') and s ...

(unity of God) and the unity of creation..

Celestial cosmography

Qazwini says that the earth was swinging in all directions until God created an angel to bear it on his shoulders and steady it with his hands. A green jacinth slab was placed underneath the angel, the slab borne by a gigantic bull

Kujata Kuyūthā () is the cosmic bull in Cosmology in medieval Islam#Cosmography, medieval Islamic cosmography. It is said to carry on its back the angel who shoulders the earth and the rock platform upon which the angel stands. The bull is said to sta ...

, which in turn rested on the giant fish Bahamut. Qazwini's cosmography above has been compared to a similar entry in

's ''

'' and ibn al-Wardi's ''Kharīdat al-'Ajā'ib'', with minor differences noted.

Time

When discussing time, Qazwini makes the parallel comparison of the

Islamic Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...

Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of Roman civilization *Epistle to the Romans, shortened to Romans, a letter w ...

and

Iranian calendar The Iranian calendars or Iranian chronologies (, ) are a succession of calendars created and used for over two millennia in Iran, also known as Persia. One of the longest chronological records in human history, the Iranian calendar has been modi ...

s. Thus he links the days of the week to the sacred history of

Judaism Judaism () is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic, Monotheism, monotheistic, ethnic religion that comprises the collective spiritual, cultural, and legal traditions of the Jews, Jewish people. Religious Jews regard Judaism as their means of o ...

Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...

, and

Islam Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...

, e.g. the holy days Friday (the day of congregational prayer in Islam), Saturday (the

Shabbat Shabbat (, , or ; , , ) or the Sabbath (), also called Shabbos (, ) by Ashkenazi Hebrew, Ashkenazim, is Judaism's day of rest on the seventh day of the seven-day week, week—i.e., Friday prayer, Friday–Saturday. On this day, religious Jews ...

) and Sunday (the day of rest in

) and how they came to be regarded as

holy Sacred describes something that is dedicated or set apart for the service or worship of a deity; is considered worthy of spiritual respect or devotion; or inspires awe or reverence among believers. The property is often ascribed to objects (a ...

. The days are also linked to lawful and unlawful things and acts.

Angelology

Qazwini shows that God created many things that are unknown to the people (Quran 16:8), and a fundamental part of this, with central importance, is God's

Throne A throne is the seat of state of a potentate or dignitary, especially the seat occupied by a sovereign (or viceroy A viceroy () is an official who reigns over a polity in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory ...

, His footstool are the angels and the

jinn Jinn or djinn (), alternatively genies, are supernatural beings in pre-Islamic Arabian religion and Islam. Their existence is generally defined as parallel to humans, as they have free will, are accountable for their deeds, and can be either ...

. For some

Muslims Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...

, the footstool is the eighth and the Throne the ninth sphere. Furthermore, the

Throne of God The throne of God is the reigning centre of God in the Abrahamic religions: primarily Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The throne is said by various holy books to reside beyond the Seventh Heaven which is called ''Araboth'' ( ''‘ărāḇōṯ ...

is the

qibla The qibla () is the direction towards the Kaaba in the Great Mosque of Mecca, Sacred Mosque in Mecca, which is used by Muslims in various religious contexts, particularly the direction of prayer for the salah. In Islam, the Kaaba is believed to ...

for inhabitants of the

celestial spheres The celestial spheres, or celestial orbs, were the fundamental entities of the cosmological models developed by Plato, Eudoxus, Aristotle, Ptolemy, Copernicus, and others. In these celestial models, the apparent motions of the fixed star ...

like the

Kaaba The Kaaba (), also spelled Kaba, Kabah or Kabah, sometimes referred to as al-Kaba al-Musharrafa (), is a stone building at the center of Islam's most important mosque and Holiest sites in Islam, holiest site, the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Sa ...

is for people on earth. The angels inhabit the celestial spheres. The angels are good, perfect beings without negative feelings or passion; they are obedient, and most importantly, they keep the order of the creation and govern everything on earth; the jinn and devils are flawed and imperfect creatures who possess passion and wrath and are disobedient. Qazwini's work contains moreover

angelology An angel is a spiritual (without a physical body), heavenly, or supernatural being, usually humanoid with bird-like wings, often depicted as a messenger or intermediary between God (the transcendent) and humanity (the profane) in various ...

that has roots partly in the

Quran The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...

and

hadith Hadith is the Arabic word for a 'report' or an 'account f an event and refers to the Islamic oral tradition of anecdotes containing the purported words, actions, and the silent approvals of the Islamic prophet Muhammad or his immediate circle ...

. There are two types of angels in the Quran, the one being the guards of

hell In religion and folklore, hell is a location or state in the afterlife in which souls are subjected to punishment after death. Religions with a linear divine history sometimes depict hells as eternal destinations, such as Christianity and I ...

(96:18) and angels that are nearest to God (4:170, 83:21). Qazwini also mentions the angels who carry the Throne of God (the idea goes back to the

Jahiliyya In Islamic salvation history, the ''Jāhiliyyah'' (Age of Ignorance) is an era of pre-Islamic Arabia as a whole or only of the Hejaz leading up to the lifetime of Muhammad. The Arabic expression (meaning literally “the age or condition of ig ...

): they are four in number in the form of a man, bull, eagle and lion. On the

Day of Resurrection In Islam, "the promise and threat" () of Judgement Day ( or ), is when "all bodies will be resurrected" from the dead, and "all people" are "called to account" for their deeds and their faith during their life on Earth. It has been called "the do ...

, the Throne will be carried by "eight" (

, Ḥāqqa 69:17), and this traditionally refers to eight angels. Next to these is the angel ar-Ruh or the Spirit, who is first in order and the greatest. His breath quickens the creatures, and he knows the order of the spheres, planets, elements,

minerals In geology and mineralogy, a mineral or mineral species is, broadly speaking, a solid substance with a fairly well-defined chemical composition and a specific crystal structure that occurs naturally in pure form.John P. Rafferty, ed. (2011): M ...

, etc. He is the one who decides the movement and stillness of things by the will of God. This angel is followed by Israfil; he transmits the orders of God and blows the horn. He is not mentioned in the Quran but in hadith and linked to the Day of Resurrection. Israfil carries the tablet (''lawh'') and the pen (''qalam''). Whether the abovementioned angels or Gabriel,

Michael Michael may refer to: People * Michael (given name), a given name * he He ..., a given name * Michael (surname), including a list of people with the surname Michael Given name * Michael (bishop elect)">Michael (surname)">he He ..., a given nam ...

or others, all of them have a role in keeping the order of the creation. It is also believed that angels have about seventy wings each. God then sent angels to inhabit the earth. One sent in exile was young Azazil, educated by the angels. He acquired their knowledge and became like them and even their leader. He fell into disgrace because he disobeyed God; he would not prostrate himself before Adam as the vicegerent of God on earth. The idea of Azazil comes from Judaism and is mentioned in the Quran ( Baqara 2:32, etc.) as

Iblis Iblis (), alternatively known as Eblīs, also known as Shaitan, is the leader of the Shayatin, devils () in Islam. According to the Quran, Iblis was thrown out of Jannah#Jinn, angels, and devils, heaven after refusing to prostrate himself bef ...

. In folk Islam, Iblis is believed to be present in baths, bazaars, crossroads, and intoxicating drinks and is associated with flutes, poetry, tattoos, lies and illnesses. God also persecuted and imprisoned many of the jinn and exiled them. Jinn and

ghoul In folklore, a ghoul (from , ') is a demon-like being or monstrous humanoid, often associated with graveyards and the consumption of human flesh. In the legends or tales in which they appear, a ghoul is far more ill-mannered and foul than go ...

s are then considered terrestrial beings, occupying a place between animals and humanity, and discussed in the second part of Al-qazwini's work.

Terrestrial cosmography

The earth, being part of the lower spheres, brings forth minerals, plants, and living creatures such as animals and humans. In Qazwini's classification, there are seven types of living creatures: man, jinn, animals used for riding, animals that graze, beasts, birds, and insects—and creatures that look strange or are hybrids.

Man

Humanity has the highest rank in the order of God's creation ( macrocosm): he is its quintessence ( microcosm) and can be both the embodiment of the angels and

Satan Satan, also known as the Devil, is a devilish entity in Abrahamic religions who seduces humans into sin (or falsehood). In Judaism, Satan is seen as an agent subservient to God, typically regarded as a metaphor for the '' yetzer hara'', or ' ...

. Humanity has a rational soul and can think, talk, and choose to ascend to the highest or lowest stations in life. Man's soul is immortal, and he is created for immortality; he changes his place of living from the womb to the earth and from there to

paradise In religion and folklore, paradise is a place of everlasting happiness, delight, and bliss. Paradisiacal notions are often laden with pastoral imagery, and may be cosmogonical, eschatological, or both, often contrasted with the miseries of human ...

fire. Next to man are the

, created from smokeless fire and can be in different forms. It is also believed that the jinn represent the rebellious among men or that angels were created from the light of the fire and the devils or jinn from its smoke. According to a legend, the jinn were created before

Adam Adam is the name given in Genesis 1–5 to the first human. Adam is the first human-being aware of God, and features as such in various belief systems (including Judaism, Christianity, Gnosticism and Islam). According to Christianity, Adam ...

and lived on the land, sea, plains and mountains and God's mercy for them was boundless. They had a government, prophets, religion and laws, but they became disobedient and stubborn and broke the rules of the prophets, which culminated in chaos on earth.

Solomon Solomon (), also called Jedidiah, was the fourth monarch of the Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy), Kingdom of Israel and Judah, according to the Hebrew Bible. The successor of his father David, he is described as having been the penultimate ...

became their lord whom they obeyed. Ya’juj and Ma’juj (

Gog and Magog Gog and Magog (; ) or Ya'juj and Ma'juj () are a pair of names that appear in the Bible and the Quran, Qur'an, variously ascribed to individuals, tribes, or lands. In Ezekiel 38, Gog is an individual and Magog is his land. By the time of the New ...

) dwell in the seventh clime, according to Qazwini in another work (''Ātar al-balad''). Traditionally Islam assigns their homeland between the fifth and seventh climes.

Bestiary

God created the birds because He knew that many people would deny the existence of flying creatures, especially the angels. Furthermore, Qazwini adds as proof that God created birds with three wings, as He did the unicorn, the Indian ass with a horn or the bat without wings; why not angels? Among the birds, Qazwini classifies the

Anqa Anqa (), also spelled '' 'Anqa' '', or ''Anka'', or ''Anqa Mughrib'' or ''Anqa al-Mughrib'' (), is a golden mysterious or fabulous female bird in Arabian mythology. She is said to fly far away and only appear once in ages. However, it is also s ...

Simurgh The simurgh (; ; also spelled ''senmurv, simorgh, simorg'', ''simurg'', ''simoorg, simorq'' or ''simourv'') is a benevolent bird in Persian mythology and Persian literature, literature. It bears some similarities with mythological birds from di ...

( Phoenix) as the most known bird and the kin of birds that lived alone on Mount Qaf. This idea goes as back as to the time of

Zoroaster Zarathushtra Spitama, more commonly known as Zoroaster or Zarathustra, was an Iranian peoples, Iranian religious reformer who challenged the tenets of the contemporary Ancient Iranian religion, becoming the spiritual founder of Zoroastrianism ...

. In more recent traditions, the Anqa is a wise bird with experience gained throughout many ages and gives warnings and moral advice. This bird lived without procreation long before Adam was created; he was single and the first and most powerful bird. The "

golden age The term Golden Age comes from Greek mythology, particularly the ''Works and Days'' of Hesiod, and is part of the description of temporal decline of the state of peoples through five Ages of Man, Ages, Gold being the first and the one during wh ...

" of the Simurgh was the time of Solomon in which not only ministers were near his throne but also animals and birds with whom Solomon could speak; the Anqa also talked to him and was the most respected. The second bird that is also recurring in classical

Persian literature Persian literature comprises oral compositions and written texts in the Persian language and is one of the world's oldest literatures. It spans over two-and-a-half millennia. Its sources have been within Greater Iran including present-day ...

and mentioned by Qazwini is the Homa (

bird). When it lands on someone's head, that person becomes the king of his land. A bird used in Iranian mystical symbolism is the salamander or "firebird", which was not seen since the time of Muhammad. Qazwini talks about the

hoopoe Hoopoes () are colourful birds found across Africa, Asia, and Europe, notable for their distinctive "Crest (feathers), crown" of feathers which can be raised or lowered at will. Two living and one extinct species are recognized, though for many y ...

, which has a central role in Iranian mysticism, only in passing; here, it is described as being able to see water from afar but not the mesh that is in front of its eyes. So the hoopoe symbolizes fate: when it comes, human eyes are blinded, i.e. a human cannot predict his fate. Another exceptional bird in Qazwini's list is the

eagle Eagle is the common name for the golden eagle, bald eagle, and other birds of prey in the family of the Accipitridae. Eagles belong to several groups of Genus, genera, some of which are closely related. True eagles comprise the genus ''Aquila ( ...

because

lion The lion (''Panthera leo'') is a large Felidae, cat of the genus ''Panthera'', native to Sub-Saharan Africa and India. It has a muscular, broad-chested body (biology), body; a short, rounded head; round ears; and a dark, hairy tuft at the ...

s feared it, and from his wings, fire appears. Birds that were conceived as strange hybrids by Qazwini are the

vulture A vulture is a bird of prey that scavenges on carrion. There are 23 extant species of vulture (including condors). Old World vultures include 16 living species native to Europe, Africa, and Asia; New World vultures are restricted to Nort ...

, having the claws of the

rooster The chicken (''Gallus gallus domesticus'') is a domesticated subspecies of the red junglefowl (''Gallus gallus''), originally native to Southeast Asia. It was first domesticated around 8,000 years ago and is now one of the most common and w ...

, or the

ostrich Ostriches are large flightless birds. Two living species are recognised, the common ostrich, native to large parts of sub-Saharan Africa, and the Somali ostrich, native to the Horn of Africa. They are the heaviest and largest living birds, w ...

with the feet of a camel and the body of a bird; this bird eats stones and flames and can live in fire for ten years. He can also digest the legs of a horse and birds but not date pits. The ostrich fears his own shadow and always walks against the sun. There are also other rare and strange birds, for example, a giant bird in

Khuzistan Khuzestan province () is one of the 31 Provinces of Iran. Located in the southwest of the country, the province borders Iraq and the Persian Gulf, covering an area of . Its capital is the city of Ahvaz. Since 2014, it has been part of Iran's ...

that attacks

camel A camel (from and () from Ancient Semitic: ''gāmāl'') is an even-toed ungulate in the genus ''Camelus'' that bears distinctive fatty deposits known as "humps" on its back. Camels have long been domesticated and, as livestock, they provid ...

s and

elephant Elephants are the largest living land animals. Three living species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant ('' Loxodonta africana''), the African forest elephant (''L. cyclotis''), and the Asian elephant ('' Elephas maximus ...

s and has eggs similar to

crystal A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents (such as atoms, molecules, or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. In addition, macros ...

; the "purple bird," a white bird that sits on a rock in the Chinese Sea and the person that looks at that rock must laugh to death, except that this bird lands on the rock; or a bird in Tabaristan which is seen in spring and carries one hundred sparrows on its tail and eats one each day. Qazwini discusses theories of the subsequent mating of animals of several species to produce the giraffe, which sports the spotted skin of a leopard, the sloping back of a hyena and also resembles a camel and a cow. Mythical creatures are also treated, such as the huge sea turtle which sailors take to be a small island, and the sea crab, "a strange animal looking like five snakes with a head".

Lapidary

Some

stones In geology, rock (or stone) is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its Chemical compound, chemical composition, and the way in which it is formed. Rocks ...

are associated to jinn or are a remedy against ailments: the

emerald Emerald is a gemstone and a variety of the mineral beryl (Be3Al2(SiO3)6) colored green by trace amounts of chromium or sometimes vanadium.Hurlbut, Cornelius S. Jr., and Kammerling, Robert C. (1991). ''Gemology'', John Wiley & Sons, New York ...

cures illnesses and repels devils; a stone called the "talk" is used for

amulet An amulet, also known as a good luck charm or phylactery, is an object believed to confer protection upon its possessor. The word "amulet" comes from the Latin word , which Pliny's ''Natural History'' describes as "an object that protects a perso ...

s and magic drinks;

amber Amber is fossilized tree resin. Examples of it have been appreciated for its color and natural beauty since the Neolithic times, and worked as a gemstone since antiquity."Amber" (2004). In Maxine N. Lurie and Marc Mappen (eds.) ''Encyclopedia ...

was first discovered by Iblis;

Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon (; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), most commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip ...

used the ''faylaq'' stone to protect his men from devils, according to

Aristotle Aristotle (; 384–322 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosophy, Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. His writings cover a broad range of subjects spanning the natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics, economics, politics, psychology, a ...

, from whose

lapidary Lapidary () is the practice of shaping rock (geology), stone, minerals, or gemstones into decorative items such as cabochons, engraved gems (including cameo (carving), cameos), and faceted designs. A person who practices lapidary techniques of ...

Qazwini often quotes, nullifies the influence of magicians and devils and protects from jinn. One stone, the ''bahta'', is described as being found at the edge of the utmost darkness where the sun has no effect, near the cosmic ocean.

Analysis

Called the "most precious cosmography of the Islamic culture" by

Carl Brockelmann Carl Brockelmann (17 September 1868 – 6 May 1956) German Semitic studies, Semiticist, was the foremost Orientalism, orientalist of his generation. He was a professor at the universities in University of Wrocław, Breslau, Berlin and, from 1903, ...

, Qazwini's cosmography was one of the most read works in the

world since numerous manuscripts and translations from

Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...

into Islamic languages have survived. Scholars presented excerpts of it to Western readers. In Qazwini's conception, the

Universe The universe is all of space and time and their contents. It comprises all of existence, any fundamental interaction, physical process and physical constant, and therefore all forms of matter and energy, and the structures they form, from s ...

is the manifestation of the absolute Truth or

God In monotheistic belief systems, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. In polytheistic belief systems, a god is "a spirit or being believed to have created, or for controlling some part of the un ...

. God's command, "Be!" caused all things in the universe to have a place and a reciprocal relationship between themselves. In Islamic tradition, humanity has the task of understanding the wisdom of God's creation as much as possible. God is the ultimate goal of that cosmic structure. Traditional Islamic sciences are connected with cosmology that has an essential role within the

metaphysical Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that examines the basic structure of reality. It is traditionally seen as the study of mind-independent features of the world, but some theorists view it as an inquiry into the conceptual framework of h ...

system. Whereas cosmology deals with the spiritual side of the universe, cosmography concerns itself with the physical aspect and its processes. Qazwini states that it is essential that humanity exerts itself to investigate the wondrous and wisely conceived creation of God, reflect on it in astonishment, and understand it as much as possible. In this way, humanity will gain delight in this world and the hereafter. Next to this, Qazwini explains important terminology in his book: 1) marvels are a phenomenon that confuses man because he is not able to grasp its cause and effects; 2) creation is everything except God; it is either essential (body, spiritual substance) or accidental (other); 3) the strange is something which is rare and differs from the known and familiar things and causes astonishment; 4) Creation is divided into several things: it has an unknown cause, man cannot grasp it and it is known in its entirety but not in its details (e.g. the

). Moreover, Qazwini informs us in the introduction of his book that he left his home and family to study books because he believed that a man's best companion on earth are books. He marvelled at the wondrous and strange things in God's creation. How perfect a creation it is, as stated in the Quran (50:6). In his explanation of created things in the powerful and vast universe (51:47), he describes the orbit of the sun based on statements of scientists but also quotes a tradition in which the angel

Gabriel In the Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam), Gabriel ( ) is an archangel with the power to announce God's will to mankind, as the messenger of God. He is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament and the Quran. Many Chris ...

tells

Muhammad Muhammad (8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious and political leader and the founder of Islam. Muhammad in Islam, According to Islam, he was a prophet who was divinely inspired to preach and confirm the tawhid, monotheistic teachings of A ...

that the sun moves forward 500 years or farsakhs (a farsakh is c. 6 km) from the time Muhammad says "No" until the time he says "Yes" one after another. In Qazwini's view, wondrous things are in the heavens and the earth, as the Quran informs (10:101), and in the seas and at their shores since it was their beginning and end were not clarified; it was part of the unknown world, inhabited with wondrous and strange creatures. Following the Judeo-Islamic tradition, Qazwini confirms that in the beginning, God created one substance, then He melted it and from the smoke became the heaven and the sediments were formed to earth; heaven and earth were first together, and God divided them (Quran 21:31) and He completed his creation in six days. Altogether God made

seven heavens In ancient Near Eastern cosmology, the seven heavens refer to seven firmaments or physical layers located above the open sky. The concept can be found in ancient Mesopotamian religion, Judaism, and Islam. Some traditions complement the seven ...

and seven earths (Quran 65:12). Whether known or unknown, every created thing has a sign of divine wisdom within itself and represents the unity of God. Based on Ptolemy's design of the universe, Qazwini talks about 9 spheres in the heaven: the

earth Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to Planetary habitability, harbor life. This is enabled by Earth being an ocean world, the only one in the Solar System sustaining liquid surface water. Almost all ...

, the

Moon The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite. It Orbit of the Moon, orbits around Earth at Lunar distance, an average distance of (; about 30 times Earth diameter, Earth's diameter). The Moon rotation, rotates, with a rotation period (lunar ...

, Mercury,

Venus Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is often called Earth's "twin" or "sister" planet for having almost the same size and mass, and the closest orbit to Earth's. While both are rocky planets, Venus has an atmosphere much thicker ...

, the

Sun The Sun is the star at the centre of the Solar System. It is a massive, nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma, heated to incandescence by nuclear fusion reactions in its core, radiating the energy from its surface mainly as visible light a ...

Mars Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun. It is also known as the "Red Planet", because of its orange-red appearance. Mars is a desert-like rocky planet with a tenuous carbon dioxide () atmosphere. At the average surface level the atmosph ...

Jupiter Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the List of Solar System objects by size, largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a Jupiter mass, mass more than 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined a ...

Saturn Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second largest in the Solar System, after Jupiter. It is a gas giant, with an average radius of about 9 times that of Earth. It has an eighth the average density of Earth, but is over 95 tim ...

and the Sphere of spheres, which embraces all other spheres and causes day and night; they all have their own

orbit In celestial mechanics, an orbit (also known as orbital revolution) is the curved trajectory of an object such as the trajectory of a planet around a star, or of a natural satellite around a planet, or of an artificial satellite around an ...

. Whereas on the one hand to these and other

star A star is a luminous spheroid of plasma (physics), plasma held together by Self-gravitation, self-gravity. The List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs, nearest star to Earth is the Sun. Many other stars are visible to the naked eye at night sk ...

s, Qazwini refers to the spheres or

plants Plants are the eukaryotes that form the kingdom Plantae; they are predominantly photosynthetic. This means that they obtain their energy from sunlight, using chloroplasts derived from endosymbiosis with cyanobacteria to produce sugars f ...

scientific Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into twoor threemajor branches: the natural sciences, which stu ...

terms, on the other hand he supports the effects of the Moon, the

North Pole The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is the point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earth's rotation, Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface. It is called the True North Pole to distingu ...

and

South Pole The South Pole, also known as the Geographic South Pole or Terrestrial South Pole, is the point in the Southern Hemisphere where the Earth's rotation, Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface. It is called the True South Pole to distinguish ...

man A man is an adult male human. Before adulthood, a male child or adolescent is referred to as a boy. Like most other male mammals, a man's genome usually inherits an X chromosome from the mother and a Y chromosome from the f ...

and

animal Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms in the Biology, biological Kingdom (biology), kingdom Animalia (). With few exceptions, animals heterotroph, consume organic material, Cellular respiration#Aerobic respiration, breathe oxygen, ...

, such as having the power to cure illnesses, with sayings among people. Humanity's purpose is to achieve perfection and eschew bad habits and acts. The good character outweighs in this life, and the next; bad character is a sin that can not be forgiven, and through it, hunanity descends to the lowest of the low in hell. A human with a good character is thus angel-like, and a bad character is the feature of the despised Satan—Qazwini's concern here, so to speak,

anthropology Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures, society, societies, and linguistics, in both the present and past, including archaic humans. Social anthropology studies patterns of behav ...

Later influence

Ahmed Bican Yazıcıoğlu reworked Qazwini's cosmology in the '' Dürr-i Meknûn'' in the year 1453, providing his Turkish readership with a much abridged version (reduced to c. one-fifth of the original) in plain Turkish prose, with some new materials added. Bican's rendering was later included by Giovanni Battista Donado in his ''Della Letteratura de Turchi'', Venice (1688), in a shortlist of Turkish works he felt merited translation into Italian.Laban Kaptein (ed.), ''Ahmed Bican Yazıcıoğlu,'' Dürr-i Meknûn. ''Kritische Edition mit Kommentar'', p. 36ff. Asch 2007.

Explanatory notes

Citations

References

* (edition of the Arabic text
full text
* (German translation) *Ansbacher, Jonas. Die Abschnitte über die Geister und wunderbaren Geschِpfe aus Qazwînî's Kosmographie, in: Fuat Sezgin, Islamic Geography vol. 201. * * * * (partial German translation) * * * * *Ruska, Julius. Das Steinbuch aus der Kosmographie des Zakarijâ ibn Muhammad ibn Mahmud al-Kazwînî, in: Fuat Sezgin, Islamic Geography vol. 201. *Von Müller, Johann. Auszüge aus dem persischen Werke Adschaibul-machlukat des Zacharia ben Mohammed Elkazwini in Sezgin Islamic Geography vol. 201. *Wüstenfeld, Ferdinand, in: Fuat Sezgin, Islamic Geography, vol. 201.

External links

*Islamic Medical Manuscripts at the U.S. National Library of Medicine, https://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/arabic/bioQ.html#qazwini **ibid, https://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/arabic/natural_hist2.html **ibid, https://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/arabic/natural_hist3.html **ibid, https://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/arabic/natural_hist4.html **ibid, https://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/arabic/natural_hist5.html **ibid, https://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/arabic/natural_hist6.html
Full digitised version on Cambridge Digital LibraryDigital version of ''Kitāb ʿajā'ib al-makhlūqāt va gharā'ib al-mawjūdāt'' Or. 8907

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