Álmos
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Álmos (), also Almos or Almus (c. 820 – c. 895), was—according to the uniform account of Hungarian chronicles—the first head of the "loose federation" of the
Hungarian tribes The Magyar tribes ( , hu, magyar törzsek) or Hungarian clans were the fundamental political units within whose framework the Hungarians (Magyars) lived, before the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin and the subsequent established the Pr ...
from around 850. Whether he was the sacred ruler (''
kende The ''kende'' (or ''kündü'') was one of the kings of the dual-monarchy of the early Hungarians along with the '' gyula'' or war-chief. The function of the ''kende'' is believed to have been a religious one ("sacral prince").Victor SpineiThe Grea ...
'') of the Hungarians, or their military leader ''( gyula)'' is subject to scholarly debate. According to
Constantine Porphyrogenitus Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (; 17 May 905 – 9 November 959) was the fourth Emperor of the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire, reigning from 6 June 913 to 9 November 959. He was the son of Emperor Leo VI and his fourth wife, Zoe Kar ...
, he accepted the
Khazar The Khazars ; he, כּוּזָרִים, Kūzārīm; la, Gazari, or ; zh, 突厥曷薩 ; 突厥可薩 ''Tūjué Kěsà'', () were a semi-nomadic Turkic people that in the late 6th-century CE established a major commercial empire coverin ...
khagan Khagan or Qaghan (Mongolian:; or ''Khagan''; otk, 𐰴𐰍𐰣 ), or , tr, Kağan or ; ug, قاغان, Qaghan, Mongolian Script: ; or ; fa, خاقان ''Khāqān'', alternatively spelled Kağan, Kagan, Khaghan, Kaghan, Khakan, Khakhan ...
's suzerainty in the first decade of his reign, but the Hungarians acted independently of the Khazars from around 860. The 14th-century ''
Illuminated Chronicle The ''Chronicon Pictum'' (Latin for "illustrated chronicle", English: ''Illuminated Chronicle'' or ''Vienna Illuminated Chronicle'', hu, Képes Krónika, sk, Obrázková kronika, german: Illustrierte Chronik, also referred to as ''Chronica Hung ...
'' narrates that he was murdered in
Transylvania Transylvania ( ro, Ardeal or ; hu, Erdély; german: Siebenbürgen) is a historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and south its natural border is the Carpathian Mountains, and to the west the Ap ...
at the beginning of the
Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin The Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin, also known as the Hungarian conquest or the Hungarian land-taking (), was a series of historical events ending with the settlement of the Hungarians in Central Europe in the late 9th and early 10t ...
around 895.


Ancestry

Anonymus Anonymus is the Latin spelling of anonymous, traditionally used by scholars in the humanities for any ancient writer whose name is not known, or to a manuscript of their work. Such writers have left valuable historical or literary records through ...
, the unknown author of the ''Gesta Hungarorum''—who wrote his "historical romance" around 1200 or 1210—states that Álmos descended "from the line"''Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians'' (ch. 5), p. 17. of
Attila the Hun Attila (, ; ), frequently called Attila the Hun, was the ruler of the Huns from 434 until his death in March 453. He was also the leader of a tribal empire consisting of Huns, Ostrogoths, Alans, and Bulgars, among others, in Central and Ea ...
. A late-13th-century chronicler,
Simon of Kéza Simon of Kéza ( hu, Kézai Simon) was the most famous Hungarian chronicler of the 13th century. He was a priest in the royal court of king Ladislaus IV of Hungary. In 1270–1271, bearing the title "master" (''magister''), Simon was part of a d ...
, wrote that Álmos was "of the
Turul The Turul is a mythological bird of prey, mostly depicted as a Falcon, in Hungarian tradition and Turkic tradition, and a national symbol of Hungarians. Origin The Turul is probably based on a large falcon. The Hungarian language word ''tur ...
kindred". He also wrote of Attila the Hun's banner, which bore "the image of the bird the Hungarians call ''turul''"—identified as either a
gyrfalcon The gyrfalcon ( or ) (), the largest of the falcon species, is a bird of prey. The abbreviation gyr is also used. It breeds on Arctic coasts and tundra, and the islands of northern North America and the Eurosiberian region. It is mainly a reside ...
or a
hawk Hawks are bird of prey, birds of prey of the family Accipitridae. They are widely distributed and are found on all continents except Antarctica. * The subfamily Accipitrinae includes goshawks, sparrowhawks, sharp-shinned hawks and others. Th ...
. A bird has an important role in the legend about Álmos's birth, which was preserved both by the ''Gesta Hungarorum'' and by the ''Illuminated Chronicle''. The legend says that Álmos's mother, already pregnant with him, dreamed of a bird of prey "which had the likeness of a hawk" impregnating her. This story has close analogies in the nomadic, steppe environment. Notably, in ''
The Secret History of the Mongols ''The Secret History of the Mongols'' (Middle Mongol: ''Mongɣol‑un niɣuca tobciyan''; Traditional Mongolian: , Khalkha Mongolian: , ; ) is the oldest surviving literary work in the Mongolian language. It was written for the Mongol royal fam ...
'', it is reported that
Genghis Khan ''Chinggis Khaan'' ͡ʃʰiŋɡɪs xaːŋbr />Mongol script: ''Chinggis Qa(gh)an/ Chinggis Khagan'' , birth_name = Temüjin , successor = Tolui (as regent)Ögedei Khan , spouse = , issue = , house = Borjigin , ...
's mother-in-law had a dream that a white falcon ("holding the Sun and the Moon its claws"—the ''
Turul The Turul is a mythological bird of prey, mostly depicted as a Falcon, in Hungarian tradition and Turkic tradition, and a national symbol of Hungarians. Origin The Turul is probably based on a large falcon. The Hungarian language word ''tur ...
'' was often depicted as the sun) flew down from the sky and lit on her hand, thus predicting the birth of a child and of the royal dynasty. This is due to the fact that falcons were associated with fertility. Falcons "populate many legends of the foundation of dynasties and empires"; they are popular in the traditions and symbolism of the steppe people, and are not exclusive or originary of any specific ethnic group living therein. Historians Gyula Kristó and
Victor Spinei Victor Spinei (born 26 October 1943 in Lozova, Lăpușna County, Romania) is Emeritus Professor of history and archaeology at the Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, member and vice president of the Romanian Academy. He is a specialist on the history ...
wrote that this story initially narrated the origin of Álmos's family from a totemic ancestor. According to the ''Gesta Hungarorum'', Álmos was born to the Scythian leader
Ügyek Ügyek (second half of the 8th century – first half of the 9th century), also known as Ugek or Vgec, was – according to the chronicler Anonymus (or "Master P.") – the father of Álmos, the first Grand Prince of the Hungarians. However, accord ...
and
Emese Emese (fl. 9th century CE) was the daughter of Prince Önedbelia of Dentumoger, the consort of the Scythian (i.e. from Dentumoger, Scythia) lord Ügyek, and the mother of High Prince Álmos in Hungarian historical mythology; thus, she was the a ...
, a daughter of "Prince Eunedubelian". Kristó wrote that her name, containing the old Hungarian word for mother ''(em)'', may have been invented by Anonymus. On the other hand, Anonymous referred to Álmos's wife as "The daughter of a certain most noble prince of
Scythia Scythia (Scythian: ; Old Persian: ; Ancient Greek: ; Latin: ) or Scythica (Ancient Greek: ; Latin: ), also known as Pontic Scythia, was a kingdom created by the Scythians during the 6th to 3rd centuries BC in the Pontic–Caspian steppe. His ...
." The name of Álmos's father is uncertain because the Hungarian chronicles preserved it in two variants. Anonymus states that
Ügyek Ügyek (second half of the 8th century – first half of the 9th century), also known as Ugek or Vgec, was – according to the chronicler Anonymus (or "Master P.") – the father of Álmos, the first Grand Prince of the Hungarians. However, accord ...
was his name, but the 14th-century ''Illuminated Chronicle'' says that
Előd Előd was – according to the chronicler Anonymus (or "Master P."), author of the ''Gesta Hungarorum'' – one of the seven chieftains of the Magyars (Hungarians), who led them to the Carpathian Basin in 895. There are three somewhat differing ...
—himself the son of Ügyek—was Álmos's father. Kristó says that both names may have been the chroniclers' inventions, since Ügyek's name derives from the ancient Hungarian ''ügy'' ("saint, holy") word, and Előd's name simply refers to an ancestor. Anonymus writes that Ügyek married Emese in 819. If this date is correct, Álmos was born around 820. Anonymus makes a connection between the name of Álmos and the Hungarian word for dream ''(álom)'', which is perhaps the most cited origin for the name. In modern Hungarian, the name means "sleepy", "drowsy"; however, the given name Álmos likely derives from álom, as mentioned, "dream", itself the root of álmos, "drowsy". Derivation from a word meaning "dream" would better fit the legend surrounding his birth, narrating his mother's dream. The word álom has
Proto-Finno-Ugric Finno-Ugric ( or ; ''Fenno-Ugric'') or Finno-Ugrian (''Fenno-Ugrian''), is a traditional grouping of all languages in the Uralic language family except the Samoyedic languages. Its formerly commonly accepted status as a subfamily of Uralic is ba ...
root, from *adema ("sleeping, dream"). Cognates include
Eastern Mari Meadow Mari or Meadow-Eastern Mari or Eastern Mari is a standardised dialect of the Mari language used by about half a million people mostly in the European part of the Russian Federation. Meadow Mari, Hill Mari, and Russian are official languag ...
омо (omo) and
Mansi Mansi may refer to: People * Mansi people, an indigenous people living in Tyumen Oblast, Russia ** Mansi language * Giovanni Domenico Mansi Gian (Giovanni) Domenico Mansi (16 February 1692 – 27 September 1769) was an Italian prelate, theolog ...
ӯлем (ūlem, "dream"). Even Kristó granted that the etymology of Álmos' name "is possible in the way described by the anonymous notary, that is, the name Álmos could be derived from the Hungarian word álom (almu) 'dream'. " More skeptical authors have still remarked that "The etymology relating the name to the Hungarian common noun álom 'dream' cannot be rejected as readily s other proposed etymologyes" Historians András Róna-Tas, and Victor Spinei argued that his name is of Turkic origin. However, Spinei himself responded to the suggestion of a Turkic origin of the individual based on the Turkic etymology of his name by saying that a name's etymology does not always reflect its bearer's ethnicity. 10% of words in modern Hungarian are of Turkic origin, who made a consistent genetic and cultural contribution to the Magyars. In the 19th century, a Turkic, rather than Uralic origin for Hungarian was proposed, due to the large and varied layer of loans and all the influences absorbed by Hungarians after several centuries of
cohabitation Cohabitation is an arrangement where people who are not married, usually couples, live together. They are often involved in a romantic or sexually intimate relationship on a long-term or permanent basis. Such arrangements have become increas ...
. The Magyars' historical social structure itself is said to be of Turkic origin. The words "Hungarian" and "Hun", too, are considered of Turkic origin. Many Hungarian names, and also animal and plant names, are of Turkic origin, and the majority of Hungarian tribal names were of Turkic origin. However, the Magyars are not a Turkic people.A MAGYAROK TÜRK MEGNEVEZÉSE BÍBORBANSZÜLETETT KONSTANTINOS DE ADMINISTRANDOIMPERIO CÍMÛ MUNKÁJÁBAN - Takács Zoltán Bálint, SAVARIAA VAS MEGYEI MÚZEUMOK ÉRTESÍTÕJE28 SZOMBATHELY, 2004, pp. 317–33

/ref> According to the Turkic theory, the name meant "the bought one" in Turkic. Linguist Bela Kalman wrote that: "The name Álmos, however, is not of Turkic origin, but the Hungarian secondary formation of the Hungarian word of
Finno-Ugric Finno-Ugric ( or ; ''Fenno-Ugric'') or Finno-Ugrian (''Fenno-Ugrian''), is a traditional grouping of all languages in the Uralic language family except the Samoyedic languages. Its formerly commonly accepted status as a subfamily of Uralic is ba ...
origin álom, meaning that which is dreamt about." Álmos, born to a Hungarian prince and Emese, "the mother of all ethnic Hungarians", led his people to the conquest of the Carpathian Basin after they were attacked by the Turkic Pechenegs. He was chosen as leader of the Magyars by the latter's chieftains, who had initially appointed Lebed as their permanent leader. The ethnic Hungarians became known after Álmos' tribe, which proved the strongest of the seven Hungarian tribes.


Reign

Álmos, according to ''Gesta Hungarorum'', was freely elected by the heads of the seven
Hungarian tribes The Magyar tribes ( , hu, magyar törzsek) or Hungarian clans were the fundamental political units within whose framework the Hungarians (Magyars) lived, before the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin and the subsequent established the Pr ...
as their "leader and master". Anonymus adds that to ratify Álmos's election, the seven chiefs "swore an oath, confirmed in pagan manner with their own blood spilled in a single vessel". Anonymus says that they also adopted the basic principles of the government, including the hereditary right of Álmos's offsprings to his office and the right of his electors' descendant to have a seat in the prince's council. According to author Pál Engel, this report of the "treaty by blood" ( hu, vérszerződés), which reflects its authors' political philosophy rather than actual events, was "often presented by Hungarian historians as the very first manifestation of modern parliamentary thinking in Europe" up until 1945. In a sharply contrasting narrative from around 950, the
Byzantine Emperor This is a list of the Byzantine emperors from the foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD, which marks the conventional start of the Eastern Roman Empire, to its fall to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Only the emperors who were recognized as le ...
Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (; 17 May 905 – 9 November 959) was the fourth Emperor of the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire, reigning from 6 June 913 to 9 November 959. He was the son of Emperor Leo VI and his fourth wife, Zoe Kar ...
states that instead of Álmos, his son Árpád was the first supreme head of the Hungarian tribes, and that Árpád's election was initiated by the Khazar khagan. The emperor says the khagan sent an envoy to the ''" voivodes"'' (heads of the Hungarian tribes) after they had been forced by the
Pechenegs The Pechenegs () or Patzinaks tr, Peçenek(ler), Middle Turkic: , ro, Pecenegi, russian: Печенег(и), uk, Печеніг(и), hu, Besenyő(k), gr, Πατζινάκοι, Πετσενέγοι, Πατζινακίται, ka, პა ...
to leave their dwelling places near the Khazar Khaganate and to settle in a new territory called ''
Etelköz Hungarian prehistory ( hu, magyar őstörténet) spans the period of history of the Hungarian people, or Magyars, which started with the separation of the Hungarian language from other Finno-Ugric or Ugric languages around , and ended with the ...
''. The khagan was planning to appoint one of the ''voivodes'' named
Levedi Levedi, or Lebed, Levedias, Lebedias, and Lebedi was a Hungarian chieftain, the first known chieftain of the Hungarians. According to Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus' '' De administrando imperio'', because of the alliance and the courage shown b ...
to lead the Hungarian tribes to represent the khagan's interests. Although Levedi refused the khagan's offer, he proposed one of his peers, Álmos or Álmos's son
Árpád Árpád (; 845 – 907) was the head of the confederation of the Magyar tribes at the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries. He might have been either the sacred ruler or ''kende'' of the Hungarians, or their military leader or '' gy ...
, to the proposed new position. The khagan accepted Levedi's offer. Upon his initiative, the Hungarians elected their first prince, but they preferred Árpád to his father. The work of Constantine VII, who referred to Magyars as Turks, Gyula Kristó and many other historians refute Porphyrogenitus's report of the omission of Álmos in favor of his son, saying that the ''turul'' legend connected to Álmos's birth proves his role as the forefather of his dynasty. These historians say that the emperor's account is based on a report by one of Árpád's descendants named Termacsu, who emphasized by this report of Árpád's election that only those descending from Árpád were suitable to lead the Hungarians; other children of Álmos were excluded. András Róna-Tas says that Constantine Porphyrogenitus preserved the memory of a ''coup d'état'' organized against Levedi ''kende'' by Álmos ''gyula'', who had his own son Árpád elected as sacred ruler in his opponent's place. A late-9th-century Central Asian scholar,
Abu Abdallah al-Jayhani Abū ʿAbdallāh Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Jayhānī ( fa, ابو عبدالله محمد بن احمد جیهانی), or Abu Abdallah Jayhani (; also spelled al-Gayhani, Jaihani), was the Persian people, Persian vizier of the Samanid Empire from 914 ...
—whose works were partially preserved in
Ibn Rusta Ahmad ibn Rustah Isfahani ( fa, احمد ابن رسته اصفهانی ''Aḥmad ibn Rusta Iṣfahānī''), more commonly known as Ibn Rustah (, also spelled ''Ibn Rusta'' and ''Ibn Ruste''), was a tenth-century Persian explorer and geographer ...
's and other Muslim authors' books—mentions the existence of these two high offices among the Hungarians. He describes the ''kende'' as the Hungarians' sacred ruler and the ''gyula'' as their military commander. Historians still debate which of the two offices was held by Álmos. Kristó says that Álmos stood at the head of the Hungarian tribal confederation from around 850. Porphyrogenitus's narration says that he initially accepted the khagan's suzerainty. The Hungarians apparently achieved their independence around 860, since the earliest reports on their plundering raids in Central Europe were recorded thereafter. The ''
Annals of St. Bertin ''Annales Bertiniani'' (''Annals of Saint Bertin'') are late Carolingian, Frankish annals that were found in the Abbey of Saint Bertin, Saint-Omer, France, after which they are named. Their account is taken to cover the period 830-82, thus conti ...
'' mentions their incursion into
Louis the German Louis the German (c. 806/810 – 28 August 876), also known as Louis II of Germany and Louis II of East Francia, was the first king of East Francia, and ruled from 843 to 876 AD. Grandson of emperor Charlemagne and the third son of Louis the P ...
's realm in 862. Three tribes seceding from the Khazar Khaganate, together known by Porphyrogenitus as ''" Kabaroi"'', also joined with the Hungarians in the 860s or 870s. Spinei says that the memory of their arrival was preserved by Anonymus, who mentions "the seven dukes of the
Cumans The Cumans (or Kumans), also known as Polovtsians or Polovtsy (plural only, from the Russian language, Russian Exonym and endonym, exonym ), were a Turkic people, Turkic nomadic people comprising the western branch of the Cuman–Kipchak confede ...
" who "subjected themselves to Prince Álmos" at Kiev. Anonymus writes of a war between the Hungarians and the
Kievan Rus Kievan Rusʹ, also known as Kyivan Rusʹ ( orv, , Rusĭ, or , , ; Old Norse: ''Garðaríki''), was a state in Eastern and Northern Europe from the late 9th to the mid-13th century.John Channon & Robert Hudson, ''Penguin Historical Atlas of ...
', ending with the victory of the Hungarians, who were commanded by Álmos. The Russian ''
Primary Chronicle The ''Tale of Bygone Years'' ( orv, Повѣсть времѧньныхъ лѣтъ, translit=Pověstĭ vremęnĭnyxŭ lětŭ; ; ; ; ), often known in English as the ''Rus' Primary Chronicle'', the ''Russian Primary Chronicle'', or simply the ...
'' refers to a "Hungarian hill" at Kiev in connection with the town's occupation by
Oleg of Novgorod Oleg ( orv, Ѡлегъ, Ольгъ; non, Helgi; died 912), also known as Oleg the Wise (russian: Олег Вещий, lit=Oleg the Prophet; uk, Олег Віщий), was a Varangian prince of the Rus' who was ruler of Novgorod. He later con ...
in 882. The same chronicle mentions "a castle of Ol'ma" ''(Олъминъ дворъ)'' standing on the same hill.
George Vernadsky George Vernadsky ( Russian: Гео́ргий Влади́мирович Верна́дский; August 20, 1887 – June 12, 1973) was a Russian Empire-born American historian and an author of numerous books on Russian history. European years ...
says that this fortress had been named after Álmos, but this theory has not been widely accepted by historians.


Death

The Hungarians who lived in the westernmost parts of the
Pontic steppes Pontic, from the Greek ''pontos'' (, ), or "sea", may refer to: The Black Sea Places * The Pontic colonies, on its northern shores * Pontus (region), a region on its southern shores * The Pontic–Caspian steppe, steppelands stretching from nor ...
were occasionally hired by neighboring powers to intervene in their wars. For instance, they invaded
Moravia Moravia ( , also , ; cs, Morava ; german: link=yes, Mähren ; pl, Morawy ; szl, Morawa; la, Moravia) is a historical region in the east of the Czech Republic and one of three historical Czech lands, with Bohemia and Czech Silesia. The me ...
in alliance with Arnulf of East Francia in 892. Their intervention in a conflict between the
First Bulgarian Empire The First Bulgarian Empire ( cu, блъгарьско цѣсарьствиѥ, blagarysko tsesarystviye; bg, Първо българско царство) was a medieval Bulgar- Slavic and later Bulgarian state that existed in Southeastern Europ ...
and the
Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
caused a joint counter-invasion by the
Bulgars The Bulgars (also Bulghars, Bulgari, Bolgars, Bolghars, Bolgari, Proto-Bulgarians) were Turkic semi-nomadic warrior tribes that flourished in the Pontic–Caspian steppe and the Volga region during the 7th century. They became known as nomad ...
and
Pechenegs The Pechenegs () or Patzinaks tr, Peçenek(ler), Middle Turkic: , ro, Pecenegi, russian: Печенег(и), uk, Печеніг(и), hu, Besenyő(k), gr, Πατζινάκοι, Πετσενέγοι, Πατζινακίται, ka, პა ...
. The Hungarians were forced to leave the Pontic steppes and to cross the Carpathians in search of a new homeland around 895. According to the ''Gesta Hungarorum'', the Hungarians invaded the Carpathian Basin under Álmos, who "appointed his son, Árpád, as leader and master" of the Hungarian tribal federation at Ungvár (
Uzhhorod Uzhhorod ( uk, У́жгород, , ; ) is a city and municipality on the river Uzh in western Ukraine, at the border with Slovakia and near the border with Hungary. The city is approximately equidistant from the Baltic, the Adriatic and the B ...
,
Ukraine Ukraine ( uk, Україна, Ukraïna, ) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast. Ukraine covers approximately . Prior to the ongoing Russian inv ...
). Thereafter Anonymous does not mention Álmos. In a contrasting report, the ''Illuminated Chronicle'' says that Álmos "could not enter
Pannonia Pannonia (, ) was a province of the Roman Empire bounded on the north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper Moesia. Pannonia was located in the territory that is now wes ...
, for he was killed in Erdelw" (Transylvania). Kristó says that the chronicle preserves the memory of Álmos's sacrifice because of the catastrophic defeat of his people by the Pechenegs. If this is true, his ritual murder proves that Álmos was the sacred leader of the Hungarian tribal federation. Róna-Tas refutes this and says that if the chronicle's report is reliable, Álmos became the victim of a political murder committed or initiated by his own son. Preferring the narration of the ''Gesta Hungarorum'' to the report by the ''Illuminated Chronicle'', Victor Spinei states that Álmos was not murdered in Transylvania since Anonymus writes that the Hungarians bypassed this region when invading the Carpathian Basin.


Family

No source preserved the name of Álmos's wife.''Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians'', note 9 on p. 15. Anonymus writes that she was "the daughter of a certain most noble prince".''Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians'' (ch. 4), p. 15. Álmos's only child known by name was Árpád, who succeeded Álmos after his death. The following is a family tree presenting Álmos's closest relatives:


See also

*
Árpád dynasty The Árpád dynasty, consisted of the members of the royal House of Árpád (), also known as Árpáds ( hu, Árpádok, hr, Arpadovići). They were the ruling dynasty of the Principality of Hungary in the 9th and 10th centuries and of the Kingd ...
*
Sacred king In many historical societies, the position of kingship carries a sacral meaning; that is, it is identical with that of a high priest The term "high priest" usually refers either to an individual who holds the office of ruler-priest, or to one ...


Notes


Footnotes


References


Primary sources

*''Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians'' (Edited, Translated and Annotated by Martyn Rady and László Veszprémy) (2010). In: Rady, Martyn; Veszprémy, László; Bak, János M. (2010); ''Anonymus and Master Roger''; CEU Press; . *''Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio'' (Greek text edited by Gyula Moravcsik, English translation by Romillyi J. H. Jenkins) (1967). Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies. . *''Simon of Kéza: The Deeds of the Hungarians'' (Edited and translated by László Veszprémy and Frank Schaer with a study by Jenő Szűcs) (1999). CEU Press. . *''The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle:'' Chronica de Gestis Hungarorum (Edited by Dezső Dercsényi) (1970). Corvina, Taplinger Publishing. . *''The Russian Primary Chronicle: Laurentian Text'' (Translated and edited by Samuel Hazzard Cross and Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor) (1953). Medieval Academy of America. .


Secondary sources

* * * * * * *


External links

* , - {{DEFAULTSORT:Almos Hungarian prehistory 9th-century Hungarian people 9th-century rulers in Europe House of Árpád Hungarian monarchs 820s births 890s deaths Year of birth uncertain Year of death uncertain Magyar tribal chieftains Human sacrifice