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Laukininkas
A ''laukininkas'' (plural: ''laukininkai'') was a free peasant in the early Grand Duchy of Lithuania. ''Laukininkai'' formed the majority of the Grand Duchy's population. They formed communities, called ''laukas'' (in modern Lithuanian the term means ''field''). The term was later replaced by volosts ( lt, valsčius) and subsequently laukininkas became known as ''valstietis'', which is a modern Lithuanian term for farmers and peasants. History In ancient times, when tools were crude and a single family could not support itself, the land was owned and worked by egalitarian communities. In the 12th century tools improved and more efficient techniques were adopted; increased harvest meant that individual families could sustain themselves. This facilitated transition from the community-based to family-based agriculture. By early 13th century the land was divided into individual lots that were owned and cultivated by a single family of ''laukininkai''. The lots were inherited from one ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
History Of Lithuania (1219–1295)
The history of Lithuania between 1219 and 1295 concerns the establishment and early history of the first Lithuanian state, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The beginning of the 13th century marks the end of the prehistory of Lithuania. From this point on the history of Lithuania is recorded in chronicles, treaties, and other written documents. In 1219, 21 Lithuanian dukes signed a peace treaty with Galicia–Volhynia. This event is widely accepted as the first proof that the Baltic tribes were uniting and consolidating. Despite continuous warfare with two Christian orders, the Livonian Order and the Teutonic Knights, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was established and gained some control over the lands of Black Ruthenia, Polatsk, Minsk, and other territories east of modern-day Lithuania that had become weak and vulnerable after the collapse of Kievan Rus'. The first ruler to hold the title of Grand Duke was Mindaugas. Traditionally he is considered the founder of the state, th ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Veldamai
Veldamas (plural: ''veldamai'') was a form of landownership in the early stages of Lithuanian serfdom. The term describes a peasant family with its land and other belongings granted by the Grand Duke of Lithuania to his loyal followers, usually as a reward for military service. The peasant retained ownership of his property, including land, but owed taxes and levies imposed by the noble. ''Veldamas'' was a middle stage between ''laukininkas'' (a free peasant) and a serf. The term ''veldamas'' is derived from Lithuanian word ''veldėti'', ''valda'' and means "to rule something". East Slavic texts loaned the word as велдомы. The term gradually disappeared after the Volok Reform in 1557, but it was still used in ''Postilė'' by Mikalojus Daukša (1599) to denote a subordinate. Rights ''Veldamai'' were different from ''kaimynai'', a class of peasants also under control of the nobles, as ''kaimynai'' did not own their land and had to rent it from the nobles. ''Veldamai'' had som ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Grand Duchy Of Lithuania
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a European state that existed from the 13th century to 1795, when the territory was partitioned among the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia, and the Habsburg Empire of Austria. The state was founded by Lithuanians, who were at the time a polytheistic nation born from several united Baltic tribes from Aukštaitija. The Grand Duchy expanded to include large portions of the former Kievan Rus' and other neighbouring states, including what is now Lithuania, Belarus and parts of Ukraine, Latvia, Poland, Russia and Moldova. At its greatest extent, in the 15th century, it was the largest state in Europe. It was a multi-ethnic and multiconfessional state, with great diversity in languages, religion, and cultural heritage. The consolidation of the Lithuanian lands began in the late 13th century. Mindaugas, the first ruler of the Grand Duchy, was crowned as Catholic King of Lithuania in 1253. The pagan state was targeted in a religious crusade by ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Lithuanian University Of Agriculture
Vytautas Magnus University Agriculture Academy (VMU Agriculture Academy) is a state institution of higher education and research in Lithuania, in Akademija, west of Kaunas. History After restructuring the Agronomy–Forestry Department at the University of Lithuania (in Kaunas) and Dotnuva Agricultural College, the Agricultural Academy was established on September 3, 1924, in Dotnuva. The Council of Professors and the first rector of the academy, professor P. Matulionis, were elected. Despite the complicated economic situation in Lithuania and that the government could hardly support the newly established higher school, the academy developed and grew stronger. In 1924–1937, 125 graduates passed the final examinations and defended diploma theses. However, World War II disrupted usual work. Many of the professors and lecturers from the academy were deported to Siberia, and others were able to escape deportation by withdrawing to Western countries. In 1945 the academy wa ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Volost
Volost ( rus, во́лость, p=ˈvoləsʲtʲ; ) was a traditional administrative subdivision in Eastern Europe. In earlier East Slavic history, '' volost'' was a name for the territory ruled by the knyaz, a principality; either as an absolute ruler or with varying degree of autonomy from the ''Velikiy Knyaz'' ( Grand Prince). Starting from the end of the 14th century, ''volost'' was a unit of administrative division in Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Poland, Muscovy, lands of modern Latvia and Ukraine. Since about the 16th century it was a part of provincial districts that were called " uezd" in Muscovy and the later Russian Empire. Each uezd had several volosts that were subordinated to the uezd city. After the abolition of Russian serfdom in 1861, ''volost'' became a unit of peasant's local self-rule. A number of mirs are united into a volost, which has an assembly consisting of elected delegates from the mirs. These elect an elder ('' starshina'') and, hitherto, a court of jus ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Egalitarianism
Egalitarianism (), or equalitarianism, is a school of thought within political philosophy that builds from the concept of social equality, prioritizing it for all people. Egalitarian doctrines are generally characterized by the idea that all humans are equal in fundamental worth or moral status. Egalitarianism is the doctrine that all citizens of a state should be accorded exactly equal rights. Egalitarian doctrines have motivated many modern social movements and ideas, including the Enlightenment, feminism, civil rights, and international human rights. The term ''egalitarianism'' has two distinct definitions in modern English, either as a political doctrine that all people should be treated as equals and have the same political, economic, social and civil rights, or as a social philosophy advocating the removal of economic inequalities among people, economic egalitarianism, or the decentralization of power. Sources define egalitarianism as equality reflecting the natur ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Allodial Title
Allodial title constitutes ownership of real property (land, buildings, and fixtures) that is independent of any superior landlord. Allodial title is related to the concept of land held "in allodium", or land ownership by occupancy and defense of the land. Most property ownership in common law jurisdictions is fee simple. In the United States, the land is subject to eminent domain by federal, state and local government, and subject to the imposition of taxes by state and/or local governments, and there is thus no true allodial land. Some states within the U.S. (notably, Nevada and Texas) have provisions for considering land allodial under state law, and the term may be used in other circumstances. Land is "held of the Crown" in England and Wales and other jurisdictions in the Commonwealth realms. Some land in the Orkney and Shetland Islands, known as udal land, is held in a manner akin to allodial land in that these titles are not subject to the ultimate ownership of the Crown ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Social Class
A social class is a grouping of people into a set of hierarchical social categories, the most common being the upper, middle and lower classes. Membership in a social class can for example be dependent on education, wealth, occupation, income, and belonging to a particular subculture or social network. "Class" is a subject of analysis for sociologists, political scientists, anthropologists and social historians. The term has a wide range of sometimes conflicting meanings, and there is no broad consensus on a definition of "class". Some people argue that due to social mobility, class boundaries do not exist. In common parlance, the term "social class" is usually synonymous with "socio-economic class", defined as "people having the same social, economic, cultural, political or educational status", e.g., "the working class"; "an emerging professional class". However, academics distinguish social class from socioeconomic status, using the former to refer to one's relatively ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Division Of Labor
The division of labour is the separation of the tasks in any economic system or organisation so that participants may specialise (specialisation). Individuals, organizations, and nations are endowed with, or acquire specialised capabilities, and either form combinations or trade to take advantage of the capabilities of others in addition to their own. Specialised capabilities may include equipment or natural resources as well as skills, and training and combinations of such assets acting together are often important. For example, an individual may specialise by acquiring tools and the skills to use them effectively just as an organization may specialise by acquiring specialised equipment and hiring or training skilled operators. The division of labour is the motive for trade and the source of economic interdependence. Historically, an increasing division of labour is associated with the growth of total output and trade, the rise of capitalism, and the increasing complexity of ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Kaimynas
Kaimynas (plural: ''kaimynai'') was a class of non-free peasants in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania before full-scale serfdom was established by the Wallach reform (1557). The term describes a former prisoner of war, who was allowed to live in a village and rent a piece of land from a noble. Peasants who lost their land because of debt or other circumstances could also become kaimynai. Kaimynai and their families were allowed to form a farm, have tools, and earn their own living independently. However they had no personal freedoms and were dependent on the nobles. Because the family was treated as a single farm and owned taxes and levies as a group and not individually, kaimynai were sold or exchanged in families. Their situation was similar to that of šeimynykščiai as both classes were not free and dependent on the nobles. However, šeimynykščiai were members of noble's household and did not earn their living independently. They are often compared to slaves, while kaimynai are ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
šeimynykštis
''Šeimynykštis'' (plural: ''šeimynykščiai'') was a class of patriarchal slaves, who did the same job and lived under the same conditions as his master and family, in the early Grand Duchy of Lithuania. They had no personal freedoms and were completely dependent on the master. Unlike ''kaimynas'', ''šeimynykštis'' did not rent land and earn their living independently. Rather, they were members of the noble's household (the term is related to the word ''šeima'' – family). Some members of ''šeimynykščiai'', called ''bernai'' or ''parobkai'', would receive a small piece of land, called ''banda'', and would be allowed to establish their own farm. Such arrangement was very similar to that of ''kaimynas'', but ''bernai'' and their families were treated as individuals and not as a single group and thus could be separated and sold individually. By the end of the 16th century, when Wallach reform established full serfdom in Lithuania, few ''šeimynykščiai'' were left as they m ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Lithuanian Institute Of History
The Lithuanian Institute of History ( lt, Lietuvos istorijos institutas) is a state-funded research institution in Lithuania. Governed by national law, it is the country's main institution of history research, concentrating mostly on the history of Lithuania and its neighbouring states. The institute employs 126 people; 64 of them have Ph.D. degrees and 4 are habilitated doctors. Its director is Rimantas Miknys. The institute is divided into 7 sections (archaeology, cities, ethnology, archaeography, Grand Duchy of Lithuania, 19th century and 20th century). It also has its own library, collection of manuscripts, and publishing house. It was established in 1941 as a division of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences. As of 2007, the institute was working on 15 projects, main of them is 12-volume academic history of Lithuania ''History of Lithuania'' ( lt, Lietuvos istorija) or ''Academic History of Lithuania'' ( lt, Akademinė Lietuvos istorija) is a thirteen-volume series of books d ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
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