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Kwarta
The kwarta ( lt, 'kvarta') or quarter tax was a tax in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth on all incomes from crown estates in ''królewszczyzna'' (crown lands). It was established in 1563.Norman Davies, ''God's Playground''p. 97/ref> Initially the rate was 1/4, hence the name, later 1/5. Its purpose was to maintain the Kwarta army. Later it was absorbed into the ''hiberna Hiberna in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was also known as "chleb zimowy" (winters bread) and it was an obligation to guarantee accommodation for troops during winter time. It was an obligation of ''Królewszczyzna'' (crown lands) and church es ...'' military-purpose tax. References Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Legal history of Poland Abolished taxes 1563 establishments in Europe 16th-century establishments in Poland {{Poland-hist-stub ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Kwarta Army
''Wojsko kwarciane'' (, ''quarter army'') was the term used for regular army units of Poland (Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth). The term was used since 1562. ''Wojsko kwarciane'' was formed from earlier ''obrona potoczna'' units. The term "quarter" in the name of the army ( pl, kwarta) comes from the type of the tax paid for their upkeep (''kwarta'' tax): a quarter of income from the crown lands (''królewszczyzny'') was supposed to be used for that purpose. As monarchs usually leased their land to ''szlachta'' (or merchants, or Jews) for short-term benefits, they didn't have direct control over cash flow and this often resulted in corruption and delayed payment of military wages. Military commanders (hetmans) often had to pay the wages of ''wojsko kwarciane'' and hired mercenaries from their own purse. Sometimes disgruntled unpaid units formed confederations (see konfederacja) in order to lawfully collect their wages by force. The standing numbers of ''wojsko kwarciane'' varied ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, formally known as the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and, after 1791, as the Commonwealth of Poland, was a bi-confederal state, sometimes called a federation, of Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Lithuania ruled by a common Monarchy, monarch in real union, who was both King of Poland and List of Lithuanian monarchs, Grand Duke of Lithuania. It was one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th- to 17th-century Europe. At its largest territorial extent, in the early 17th century, the Commonwealth covered almost and as of 1618 sustained a multi-ethnic population of almost 12 million. Polish language, Polish and Latin were the two co-official languages. The Commonwealth was established by the Union of Lublin in July 1569, but the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania had been in a ''de facto'' personal union since 1386 with the marriage of the Polish ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Hiberna
Hiberna in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was also known as "chleb zimowy" (winters bread) and it was an obligation to guarantee accommodation for troops during winter time. It was an obligation of ''Królewszczyzna'' (crown lands) and church estates. Initially it was paid-in-kind, in 1649-1652 it was a targeted tax to support the troops collected by Grand Crown Hetman. Over time ''hiberna'' absorbed some other taxes (e.g. Jewish poll tax and ''kwarta'') and extended to other population categories.''Scepter of Judah: The Jewish Autonomy in the Eighteenth-Century Crown Poland''pp. 16-17/ref> The term is borrowed from ancient Rome, where the '' castra hiberna'' were a winter camps for Roman legions The Roman legion ( la, legiō, ) was the largest military unit of the Roman army, composed of 5,200 infantry and 300 equites (cavalry) in the period of the Roman Republic (509 BC–27 BC) and of 5,600 infantry and 200 auxilia in the period of .... References {{reflist Military ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Crown Lands
Crown land (sometimes spelled crownland), also known as royal domain, is a territorial area belonging to the monarch, who personifies the Crown. It is the equivalent of an entailed estate and passes with the monarchy, being inseparable from it. Today, in Commonwealth realms such as Canada and Australia, crown land is considered public land and is apart from the monarch's private estate. In Britain, the hereditary revenues of Crown lands provided income for the monarch until the start of the reign of George III, when the profits from the Crown Estate were surrendered to the Parliament of Great Britain in return for a fixed civil list payment. The monarch retains the income from the Duchy of Lancaster. Australia In Australia, public lands without a specific tenure (e.g. National Park or State Forest) are referred to as Crown land or State Land, which is described as being held in the "right of the Crown" of either an individual State or the Commonwealth of Australia; there is ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Norman Davies
Ivor Norman Richard Davies (born 8 June 1939) is a Welsh-Polish historian, known for his publications on the history of Europe, Poland and the United Kingdom. He has a special interest in Central and Eastern Europe and is UNESCO Professor at the Jagiellonian University, professor emeritus at University College London, a visiting professor at the Collège d'Europe, and an honorary fellow at St Antony's College, Oxford. He was granted Polish citizenship in 2014. Academic career Davies was born to Richard and Elizabeth Davies in Bolton, Lancashire. He is of Welsh descent. He studied in Grenoble, France, from 1957 to 1958 and then under A. J. P. Taylor at Magdalen College, Oxford, where he earned a BA in history in 1962. He was awarded an MA at the University of Sussex in 1966 and also studied in Perugia, Italy. Davies intended to study for a PhD in the Soviet Union but was denied an entry visa, so he went to Kraków, Poland, instead. Davies studied at the Jagiellonian Univ ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
God's Playground
''God's Playground: A History of Poland'' is a history book in two volumes written by Norman Davies, covering a 1000-year history of Poland. Volume 1: ''The origins to 1795'', and Volume 2: ''1795 to the present'' first appeared as the Oxford Clarendon Press publication in 1981 and have since been reprinted in multiple times, and translated into Polish as ''Boże igrzysko : Historia Polski'' by Elżbieta Tabakowska (2 volumes in 1, with 1183 pages by Znak Publishers of Kraków). Davies was inspired to the title by Jan Kochanowski's 1580s poem ''Boże igrzysko'' ("Mankind: Bauble of the Gods"). The book, which most editions split into two volumes, has received favourable reviews in the international press, and is considered by many historians"This is a remarkable book... this is a major work that is imaginative, thought-provoking and extremely well written".-- Piotr S. Wandycz, review in The American Historical Review, Vol. 88, No. 2 (Apr. 1983), pp. 436-437JSTORbr> L. R. Lewitter ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Legal History Of Poland
Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior,Robertson, ''Crimes against humanity'', 90. with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a science and as the art of justice. State-enforced laws can be made by a group legislature or by a single legislator, resulting in statutes; by the executive through decrees and regulations; or established by judges through precedent, usually in common law jurisdictions. Private individuals may create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that adopt alternative ways of resolving disputes to standard court litigation. The creation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, and the rights encoded therein. The law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people. Legal systems vary between jurisdictions, ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
1563 Establishments In Europe
Year 1563 ( MDLXIII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. Events January–June * February 1 – Sarsa Dengel succeeds his father Menas as Emperor of Ethiopia. * January 25 – In Italy, Instituto Bancario San Paolo di Torino, a major financial group of Sanpaolo IMI, is founded. * February 18 – Francis, Duke of Guise, is assassinated while besieging Orléans. * March 19 – The Edict of Amboise is signed at the Château d'Amboise by Catherine de' Medici, acting as regent for her son Charles IX of France, having been negotiated between the Huguenot Louis, Prince of Condé, and Anne, duc de Montmorency, Constable of France. It accords some toleration to the Huguenots, especially to aristocrats. It officially ends the first phase of the French Wars of Religion, and the combined Huguenot and royal armies then march north to besiege the English in Le Havre. * May 25 – Elizabeth College ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
