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Cauxin
Cauxin is a carboxylesterase that is excreted in large amounts in cat urine. There is also evidence that it can serve as a peptide hydrolase in the production of cat pheromone precursors. Cauxin has a mass of 70 kilodaltons and is composed of 545 amino acids. The protein can also exist as a multimeric protein complex connected by disulfide bonds with a mass of 300-350 kilodaltons. This is its primary form in non-reducing conditions. The proximal tubules of epithelial cells in the kidney express cauxin. This protein is secreted into the urine from the renal tubular cells. The gene for the protein is also found in several other mammalian genomes in various organs. However, the only mammals that have cauxin present in urine are cats. It is also the first carboxylesterase to be found in urine. Cauxin has been shown to hydrolyze 3-methylbutanol-cysteinylglycine (3-MBCG) in the urine into felinine which then slowly degrades into the putative, sulfur-containing cat pheromone 3-mercapto-3 ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Felinine Chemical Structure
Felinine, also known as ''(R)-2-amino-3-(4-hydroxy-2-methylbutan-2-ylthio)propanoic acid'', is a chemical compound and amino acid found in cat urine and a precursor via microbial lyase of the putative cat pheromone and thiol called 3-mercapto-3-methylbutan-1-ol (MMB). Felinine is excreted by selected Felidae species including bobcats, Chinese desert cats, the kodkod, and domestic cats. Biosynthesis Felinine synthesis starts in the liver through a condensation reaction of glutathione and isopentenyl pyrophosphate to form 3-methylbutanolglutathionine (3-MBG). Then, kidney epithelia tissue secretes ''γ''-glutamyl transpeptidase (''γ''-GTP). ''γ''-GTP converts 3-MBG to 3-methylbutanol-cysteinylglycine (MBCG). Next, a majority of MBCG is hydrolyzed to felinine and glycine by carboxylesterase 5A, or cauxin. Cauxin specifically works by hydrolyzing the dipeptide (felinylglycine) in MBCG to increase the concentration of urinary felinine. The leftover MBCG is converted to felinine ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Felinine
Felinine, also known as ''(R)-2-amino-3-(4-hydroxy-2-methylbutan-2-ylthio)propanoic acid'', is a chemical compound and amino acid found in cat urine and a precursor via microbial lyase of the putative cat pheromone and thiol called 3-mercapto-3-methylbutan-1-ol (MMB). Felinine is excreted by selected Felidae species including bobcats, Chinese desert cats, the kodkod, and domestic cats. Biosynthesis Felinine synthesis starts in the liver through a condensation reaction of glutathione and isopentenyl pyrophosphate to form 3-methylbutanolglutathionine (3-MBG). Then, kidney epithelia tissue secretes ''γ''-glutamyl transpeptidase (''γ''-GTP). ''γ''-GTP converts 3-MBG to 3-methylbutanol-cysteinylglycine (MBCG). Next, a majority of MBCG is hydrolyzed to felinine and glycine by carboxylesterase 5A, or cauxin. Cauxin specifically works by hydrolyzing the dipeptide (felinylglycine) in MBCG to increase the concentration of urinary felinine. The leftover MBCG is converted to felini ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Cat Pheromone
A cat pheromone is a chemical molecule, or compound, that is used by cats and other felids for communication. These pheromones are produced and detected specifically by the body systems of cats and evoke certain behavioural responses. The name of the pheromone that calms a cat is Apaisins. Cat pheromones are commonly released through the action of scent rubbing. As such, one of the main proposed functions of pheromone release is to allow the cat to familiarize itself with its surroundings and other individuals, both in the newborn and adult stages of life. Specific cat pheromones that have been chemically identified include the feline facial pheromones F1-F5, the feline appeasing pheromone, and MMB in urine, most of which are associated with distinct feline behaviours. Some of these chemical makeups have been synthetically reproduced and may be used by cat owners or veterinary professionals looking to change problematic or stress-induced behaviours. Production and detection The ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Struvite
Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate) is a phosphate mineral with formula: NH4MgPO4·6H2O. Struvite crystallizes in the orthorhombic system as white to yellowish or brownish-white pyramidal crystals or in platy mica-like forms. It is a soft mineral with Mohs hardness of 1.5 to 2 and has a low specific gravity of 1.7. It is sparingly soluble in neutral and alkaline conditions, but readily soluble in acid. Struvite urinary stones and crystals form readily in the urine of animals and humans that are infected with ammonia-producing organisms. They are potentiated by alkaline urine and high magnesium excretion (high magnesium/plant-based diets). They also are potentiated by a specific urinary protein in domestic cats. Name Struvite was first described in 1845 by the German chemist (1811–1883), who found crystals of struvite in what he surmised had once been a medieval midden in Hamburg, Germany; he named the new mineral after the geographer and geologist (1772–1851) of Hamb ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Cat Pheromone
A cat pheromone is a chemical molecule, or compound, that is used by cats and other felids for communication. These pheromones are produced and detected specifically by the body systems of cats and evoke certain behavioural responses. The name of the pheromone that calms a cat is Apaisins. Cat pheromones are commonly released through the action of scent rubbing. As such, one of the main proposed functions of pheromone release is to allow the cat to familiarize itself with its surroundings and other individuals, both in the newborn and adult stages of life. Specific cat pheromones that have been chemically identified include the feline facial pheromones F1-F5, the feline appeasing pheromone, and MMB in urine, most of which are associated with distinct feline behaviours. Some of these chemical makeups have been synthetically reproduced and may be used by cat owners or veterinary professionals looking to change problematic or stress-induced behaviours. Production and detection The ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Carboxylesterase
The enzyme carboxylesterase (or carboxylic-ester hydrolase, EC 3.1.1.1; systematic name carboxylic-ester hydrolase) catalyzes reactions of the following form: :a carboxylic ester + H2O \rightleftharpoons an alcohol + a carboxylate Most enzymes from this group are serine hydrolases belonging to the superfamily of proteins with α/β hydrolase fold. Some exceptions include an esterase with β-lactamase-like structure (). Carboxylesterases are widely distributed in nature, and are common in mammalian liver. Many participate in phase I metabolism of xenobiotics such as toxins or drugs; the resulting carboxylates are then conjugated by other enzymes to increase solubility and eventually excreted. The essential polyunsaturated fatty acid arachidonic acid (AA C20 H32 O2; 20: 4, n-6), formed by the synthesis from dietary linoleic acid (LA: C18H32O2 18:2, n-6), has a role as a human carboxylesterase inhibitor. The carboxylesterase family of evolutionarily related proteins (those w ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Semen
Semen, also known as seminal fluid, is an organic bodily fluid created to contain spermatozoa. It is secreted by the gonads (sexual glands) and other sexual organs of male or hermaphroditic animals and can fertilize the female ovum. Semen is produced and originates from the seminal vesicle, which is located in the pelvis. The process that results in the discharge of semen from the urethral orifice is called ejaculation. In humans, seminal fluid contains several components besides spermatozoa: proteolytic and other enzymes as well as fructose are elements of seminal fluid which promote the survival of spermatozoa, and provide a medium through which they can move or "swim". The fluid is designed to be discharged deep into the vagina, so the spermatozoa can pass into the uterus and form a zygote with an egg. Semen is also a form of genetic material. In animals, semen has been collected for cryoconservation. Cryoconservation of animal genetic resources is a practice that call ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Interstitial Nephritis
Interstitial nephritis, also known as tubulointerstitial nephritis, is inflammation of the area of the kidney known as the renal interstitium, which consists of a collection of cells, extracellular matrix, and fluid surrounding the renal tubules. In addition to providing a scaffolding support for the tubular architecture, the interstitium has been shown to participate in the fluid and electrolyte exchange as well as endocrine functions of the kidney. There are a variety of known factors that can provoke the inflammatory process within the renal interstitium, including pharmacologic, environmental, infectious and systemic disease contributors. The spectrum of disease presentation can range from an acute process to a chronic condition with progressive tubular cell damage and renal dysfunction. Signs and symptoms Interstitial nephritis may present with a variety of signs and symptoms, many of these nonspecific. Fever is the most common, occurring in 30-50% of patients, particularly ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Urinary Stone
A bladder stone is a stone found in the urinary bladder. Signs and symptoms Bladder stones are small mineral deposits that can form in the bladder. In most cases bladder stones develop when the urine becomes very concentrated or when one is dehydrated. This allows for minerals, such as calcium or magnesium salts, to crystallize and form stones. Bladder stones vary in number, size and consistency. In some cases bladder stones do not cause any symptoms and are discovered as an incidental finding on a plain radiograph. However, when symptoms do occur, these may include severe lower abdominal and back pain, difficult urination, frequent urination at night, fever, painful urination and blood in the urine. The majority of individuals who are symptomatic will complain of pain which comes in waves. The pain may also be associated with nausea, vomiting and chills. [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
In Vivo
Studies that are ''in vivo'' (Latin for "within the living"; often not italicized in English) are those in which the effects of various biological entities are tested on whole, living organisms or cells, usually animals, including humans, and plants, as opposed to a tissue extract or dead organism. This is not to be confused with experiments done ''in vitro'' ("within the glass"), i.e., in a laboratory environment using test tubes, Petri dishes, etc. Examples of investigations ''in vivo'' include: the pathogenesis of disease by comparing the effects of bacterial infection with the effects of purified bacterial toxins; the development of non-antibiotics, antiviral drugs, and new drugs generally; and new surgical procedures. Consequently, animal testing and clinical trials are major elements of ''in vivo'' research. ''In vivo'' testing is often employed over ''in vitro'' because it is better suited for observing the overall effects of an experiment on a living subject. In dr ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Fertilisation
Fertilisation or fertilization (see spelling differences), also known as generative fertilisation, syngamy and impregnation, is the fusion of gametes to give rise to a new individual organism or offspring and initiate its development. Processes such as insemination or pollination which happen before the fusion of gametes are also sometimes informally called fertilisation. The cycle of fertilisation and development of new individuals is called sexual reproduction. During double fertilisation in angiosperms the haploid male gamete combines with two haploid polar nuclei to form a triploid primary endosperm nucleus by the process of vegetative fertilisation. History In Antiquity, Aristotle conceived the formation of new individuals through fusion of male and female fluids, with form and function emerging gradually, in a mode called by him as epigenetic. In 1784, Spallanzani established the need of interaction between the female's ovum and male's sperm to form a zygote in frog ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Monoacylglycerols
Monoglycerides (also: acylglycerols or monoacylglycerols) are a class of glycerides which are composed of a molecule of glycerol linked to a fatty acid via an ester bond. As glycerol contains both primary and secondary alcohol groups two different types of monoglycerides may be formed; 1-monoacylglycerols where the fatty acid is attached to a primary alcohol, or a 2-monoacylglycerols where the fatty acid is attached to the secondary alcohol. Synthesis Monoglycerides are produced both biologically and industrially. They are naturally present at very low levels (0.1-0.2%) in some seed oils such as olive oil, rapeseed oil and cottonseed oil. They are biosynthesized by the enzymatic hydrolysis of triglycerides by lipoprotein lipase and the enzymatic hydrolysis of diglycerides by diacylglycerol lipase; or as an intermediate in the alkanoylation of glycerol to form fats. Several monoglycerides are pharmacologically active (e.g. 2-oleoylglycerol, 2-arachidonoylglycerol). Industrial pro ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
