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Torgsin
Torgsin (Russian: ) were state-run hard-currency stores that operated in the USSR between 1931 and 1936. Their name was an acronym of ''torgovlia s inostrantsami'' (Russian: '), "trade with foreigners." Unlike the later Beryozka stores, Torgsin stores were open to all Soviet citizens, provided they had access to hard currency, gold, or jewels. Torgsin was established by the Sovnarkom chairman Vyacheslav Molotov's order of 5 July 1931 and disbanded on 1 February 1936. See also * Insnab * Intourist * Eastern Bloc economies The Eastern Bloc, also known as the Communist Bloc and the Soviet Bloc, was the group of socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, and Latin America under the influence of the Soviet Union that existed du ... References External links "Sklar's Stores," ''Time'', November 9, 1931* ttps://web.archive.org/web/20070311102609/http://www.cas.sc.edu/HIST/Faculty/osokina.html Homepage of Prof. Elena Osokina of ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Torgsin
Torgsin (Russian: ) were state-run hard-currency stores that operated in the USSR between 1931 and 1936. Their name was an acronym of ''torgovlia s inostrantsami'' (Russian: '), "trade with foreigners." Unlike the later Beryozka stores, Torgsin stores were open to all Soviet citizens, provided they had access to hard currency, gold, or jewels. Torgsin was established by the Sovnarkom chairman Vyacheslav Molotov's order of 5 July 1931 and disbanded on 1 February 1936. See also * Insnab * Intourist * Eastern Bloc economies The Eastern Bloc, also known as the Communist Bloc and the Soviet Bloc, was the group of socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, and Latin America under the influence of the Soviet Union that existed du ... References External links "Sklar's Stores," ''Time'', November 9, 1931* ttps://web.archive.org/web/20070311102609/http://www.cas.sc.edu/HIST/Faculty/osokina.html Homepage of Prof. Elena Osokina of ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Elena Osokina
Elena Aleksandrovna Osokina (born 1959 in Podolsk, Soviet Union) is a Russian historian. Personal Her mother, Octobriana (later renamed Anna), named after the Bolshevik October revolution. Education Elena Aleksandrovna Osokina earned her B.A. and M.A. in 1981, and her Ph.D. in 1987, all from Moscow State University. Writing Osokina's first book, "''Hierarchy of Consumption: Life Under the Stalinist Rationing System, 1928-1935''" was released in 1993 in Russia. In 1998, ROSSPEN published her second book "''За фасадом «сталинского изобилия»: Распределение и рынок в снабжении населения в годы индустриализации, 1927-1941''". In 2001, M.E. Sharpe Publisher translated this book into English and published it under the title "''Our Daily Bread: Socialist Distribution and the Art of Survival in Stalin’s Russia, 1927-1941''". Elena Osokina's third book "Gold for Industrialization: Torgsin" came o ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Beryozka (Russian Retail Store)
Beriozka (Russian: , lit. ''"little birch tree"'') was the overall name applied to two chains of state-run retail stores in the Soviet Union that sold goods in exchange for foreign currency. Beriozkas sold luxury goods such as chocolate and caviar that were often unavailable or unaffordable in traditional Soviet markets and shops. In English-language advertisements and signs, the spelling was always "Beriozka" rather than the more conventional transliteration "Beryozka." Beryozka existed between 1964 and 1990 up to the point of the Soviet Union dissolution. Background Since 1921 up until 1927 during the New Economic Policy trading of foreign currency in Soviet Union was legal. In 1927 however the trade was outlawed. It became illegal to possess and trade foreign currencies (unless specified by the law otherwise) with a punishment up to six month of imprisonment (the events were reflected in ''The Golden Calf'' movie). Businessmen that were often referred as NEPmen during t ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Insnab
Insnab (a combination from the Russian "INostranets" (foreigner) and "SNABzheniie" (provision)) was a Soviet state organization responsible for the provision of foreign specialists and workers employed in the Soviet industry with food and commodities. It was established in 1932 with the aim to reduce the impact of food shortages on foreign communities. Within the system of food rationing introduced in the early 1930s, foreign specialists and workers were one of the most privileged group in the USSR. For example, in 1932, American and Canadian specialists employed in the Soviet Karelia were provided with basic foodstuffs according to the following monthly norms: *Meat - 7 kg per person, 3 kg per family member *Butter - 1.5 kg per person, 1 kg per family member *Fish - 3 kg per person, 2 kg per family member *Sugar - 3 kg per person, 1.5 kg per family member. Russian workers who received basics products according to the 2nd rate applied in Soviet Karelia were supplied according to the ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Intourist
Intourist (russian: Интурист, a contraction of , "foreign tourist") was a Russian tour operator, headquartered in Moscow. It was founded on April 12, 1929, and served as the primary travel agency for foreign tourists in the Soviet Union. It was privatized in 1992 and from 2011, was 50.1% owned by the British Thomas Cook Group until its collapse in September 2019. In November 2019, Anex Tours acquired the stake from the British Official Receiver. History Lenin era Intourist was founded on April 12, 1929, as the "All-Russian Joint-Stock Company for the Acceptance of Foreign Tourists" (russian: Всероссийское акционерное общество по приему иностранных туристов ВАО «Интурист»). Intourist was responsible for managing the great majority of foreigners' access to, and travel within, the Soviet Union. In 1933, the president of Intourist, Wilhelm Kurz, a member of the Central Committee of the Soviet Unio ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Russian Language
Russian (russian: русский язык, russkij jazyk, link=no, ) is an East Slavic languages, East Slavic language mainly spoken in Russia. It is the First language, native language of the Russians, and belongs to the Indo-European languages, Indo-European language family. It is one of four living East Slavic languages, and is also a part of the larger Balto-Slavic languages. Besides Russia itself, Russian is an official language in Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan, and is used widely as a lingua franca throughout Ukraine, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and to some extent in the Baltic states. It was the De facto#National languages, ''de facto'' language of the former Soviet Union,1977 Soviet Constitution, Constitution and Fundamental Law of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 1977: Section II, Chapter 6, Article 36 and continues to be used in public life with varying proficiency in all of the post-Soviet states. Russian has over 258 million total speakers worldwide. ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Hard Currency
In macroeconomics, hard currency, safe-haven currency, or strong currency is any globally traded currency that serves as a reliable and stable store of value. Factors contributing to a currency's ''hard'' status might include the stability and reliability of the respective state's legal and bureaucratic institutions, level of corruption, long-term stability of its purchasing power, the associated country's political and fiscal condition and outlook, and the policy posture of the issuing central bank. Safe haven currency is defined as a currency which behaves like a hedge for a reference portfolio of risky assets conditional on movements in global risk aversion. Conversely, a weak or soft currency is one which is expected to fluctuate erratically or depreciate against other currencies. Softness is typically the result of weak legal institutions and/or political or fiscal instability. History The paper currencies of some developed countries have earned recognition as hard curr ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
USSR
The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen national republics; in practice, both its government and its economy were highly centralized until its final years. It was a one-party state governed by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, with the city of Moscow serving as its capital as well as that of its largest and most populous republic: the Russian SFSR. Other major cities included Leningrad (Russian SFSR), Kiev ( Ukrainian SSR), Minsk ( Byelorussian SSR), Tashkent (Uzbek SSR), Alma-Ata (Kazakh SSR), and Novosibirsk (Russian SFSR). It was the largest country in the world, covering over and spanning eleven time zones. The country's roots lay in the October Revolution of 1917, when the Bolsheviks, under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Russian Provisional Gove ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Sovnarkom
The Councils of People's Commissars (SNK; russian: Совет народных комиссаров (СНК), ''Sovet narodnykh kommissarov''), commonly known as the ''Sovnarkom'' (Совнарком), were the highest executive authorities of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), the Soviet Union (USSR), and the Soviet republics from 1917 to 1946. The Sovnarkom of the RSFSR was founded in the Russian Republic soon after the October Revolution in 1917 and its role was formalized in the 1918 Constitution of the RSFSR to be responsible to the Congress of Soviets of the RSFSR for the "general administration of the affairs of the state". Unlike its predecessor the Russian Provisional Government which had representatives of various political parties, the Sovnarkom was a government of a single party, the Bolsheviks. The Sovnarkom of the USSR and Congress of Soviets of the USSR founded in 1922 were modelled on the RSFSR system, and identical Sovnarkom bodies we ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Vyacheslav Molotov
Vyacheslav Mikhaylovich Molotov. ; (;. 9 March Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates">O._S._25_February.html" ;"title="Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates.html" ;"title="nowiki/>Old Style and New Style dates">O. S. 25 February">Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates.html" ;"title="nowiki/>Old Style and New Style dates">O. S. 25 February1890 – 8 November 1986) was a Russian politician and diplomat, an Old Bolshevik, and a leading figure in the Soviet government from the 1920s onward. He served as Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars from 1930 to 1941 and as Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Soviet Union), Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1939 to 1949 and from 1953 to 1956. During the 1930s, he ranked second in the Soviet leadership, after Joseph Stalin, whom he supported loyally for over 30 years, and whose reputation he continued to defend after Stalin's death, having himself been deeply implicated in the worst atrocities of the Stalin years – the forced collectivisation of agriculture in ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Eastern Bloc Economies
The Eastern Bloc, also known as the Communist Bloc and the Soviet Bloc, was the group of socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, and Latin America under the influence of the Soviet Union that existed during the Cold War (1947–1991). These states followed the ideology of Marxism–Leninism, in opposition to the capitalist Western Bloc. The Eastern Bloc was often called the Second World, whereas the term " First World" referred to the Western Bloc and "Third World" referred to the non-aligned countries that were mainly in Africa, Asia, and Latin America but notably also included former pre-1948 Soviet ally SFR Yugoslavia, which was located in Europe. In Western Europe, the term Eastern Bloc generally referred to the USSR and Central and Eastern European countries in the Comecon (East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania). In Asia, the Soviet Bloc comprised Mongolia, Vietnam, Laos, Kampuchea, Nor ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Hard Currency Shops In Socialist Countries
Hard may refer to: * Hardness, resistance of physical materials to deformation or fracture * Hard water, water with high mineral content Arts and entertainment * ''Hard'' (TV series), a French TV series * Hard (band), a Hungarian hard rock supergroup * Hard (music festival), in the U.S. * ''Hard'' (EP), Goodbye Mr Mackenzie, 1993 * ''Hard'' (Brainpower album), 2008 * ''Hard'' (Gang of Four album), 1983 * ''Hard'' (Jagged Edge album), 2003 * "Hard" (song), a 2009 song by Rihanna * "Hard", a song by Royce da 5'9" from the 2016 album ''Layers'' * "Hard", a song by Why Don't We from the 2018 album ''8 Letters'' * ''Hard'', a 2017 EP from the band The Neighbourhood *"Hard", a song by Sophie from the 2015 compilation album ''Product'' Places * Hard, Austria * Hard (Zürich), Switzerland Other uses * Hard (surname) * Nickname of Masaki Sumitani ( HardGay / HardoGay ) * Hard (nautical), a beach or slope convenient for hauling out vessels * Hard (video game player), Anthony Barkho ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
