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Schmidt Decomposition
In linear algebra, the Schmidt decomposition (named after its originator Erhard Schmidt) refers to a particular way of expressing a vector in the tensor product of two inner product spaces. It has numerous applications in quantum information theory, for example in entanglement characterization and in state purification, and plasticity. Theorem Let H_1 and H_2 be Hilbert spaces of dimensions ''n'' and ''m'' respectively. Assume n \geq m. For any vector w in the tensor product H_1 \otimes H_2, there exist orthonormal sets \ \subset H_1 and \ \subset H_2 such that w= \sum_ ^m \alpha _i u_i \otimes v_i, where the scalars \alpha_i are real, non-negative, and unique up to re-ordering. Proof The Schmidt decomposition is essentially a restatement of the singular value decomposition in a different context. Fix orthonormal bases \ \subset H_1 and \ \subset H_2. We can identify an elementary tensor e_i \otimes f_j with the matrix e_i f_j ^\mathsf, where f_j ^\mathsf is the transpose of ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Linear Algebra
Linear algebra is the branch of mathematics concerning linear equations such as: :a_1x_1+\cdots +a_nx_n=b, linear maps such as: :(x_1, \ldots, x_n) \mapsto a_1x_1+\cdots +a_nx_n, and their representations in vector spaces and through matrices. Linear algebra is central to almost all areas of mathematics. For instance, linear algebra is fundamental in modern presentations of geometry, including for defining basic objects such as lines, planes and rotations. Also, functional analysis, a branch of mathematical analysis, may be viewed as the application of linear algebra to spaces of functions. Linear algebra is also used in most sciences and fields of engineering, because it allows modeling many natural phenomena, and computing efficiently with such models. For nonlinear systems, which cannot be modeled with linear algebra, it is often used for dealing with first-order approximations, using the fact that the differential of a multivariate function at a point is the line ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Partial Trace
In linear algebra and functional analysis, the partial trace is a generalization of the trace. Whereas the trace is a scalar valued function on operators, the partial trace is an operator-valued function. The partial trace has applications in quantum information and decoherence which is relevant for quantum measurement and thereby to the decoherent approaches to interpretations of quantum mechanics, including consistent histories and the relative state interpretation. Details Suppose V, W are finite-dimensional vector spaces over a field, with dimensions m and n, respectively. For any space A, let L(A) denote the space of linear operators on A. The partial trace over W is then written as \operatorname_W: \operatorname(V \otimes W) \to \operatorname(V). It is defined as follows: For T\in \operatorname(V \otimes W), let e_1, \ldots, e_m , and f_1, \ldots, f_n , be bases for ''V'' and ''W'' respectively; then ''T'' has a matrix representation : \ \quad 1 \leq k, i ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Linear Algebra
Linear algebra is the branch of mathematics concerning linear equations such as: :a_1x_1+\cdots +a_nx_n=b, linear maps such as: :(x_1, \ldots, x_n) \mapsto a_1x_1+\cdots +a_nx_n, and their representations in vector spaces and through matrices. Linear algebra is central to almost all areas of mathematics. For instance, linear algebra is fundamental in modern presentations of geometry, including for defining basic objects such as lines, planes and rotations. Also, functional analysis, a branch of mathematical analysis, may be viewed as the application of linear algebra to spaces of functions. Linear algebra is also used in most sciences and fields of engineering, because it allows modeling many natural phenomena, and computing efficiently with such models. For nonlinear systems, which cannot be modeled with linear algebra, it is often used for dealing with first-order approximations, using the fact that the differential of a multivariate function at a point is the line ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Purification Of Quantum State
Purification is the process of rendering something pure, i.e. clean of foreign elements and/or pollution, and may refer to: Religion * Ritual purification, the religious activity to remove uncleanliness * Purification after death * Purification of the Virgin, a Christian liturgical feast * Purification Rundown, in Scientology Other uses * ''Purification'' (album), a 2002 Crimson Thorn album * ''Purification'' (film), a 2012 film * Purification of quantum state in quantum mechanics, especially quantum information * Purification theorem in game theory and economics, a Nash equilibrium consisting of randomly mixed strategies * Water purification ** Organisms used in water purification * List of purification methods in chemistry See also *Purificación (other) *Purify (other) *Purified (other) Purified may refer to: * Purified (rapper), Christian hip hop electrohop artist from South Africa, now in Sydney, Australia * ''Purified'' (album), 2005 gospel ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Singular Value Decomposition
In linear algebra, the singular value decomposition (SVD) is a factorization of a real or complex matrix. It generalizes the eigendecomposition of a square normal matrix with an orthonormal eigenbasis to any \ m \times n\ matrix. It is related to the polar decomposition. Specifically, the singular value decomposition of an \ m \times n\ complex matrix is a factorization of the form \ \mathbf = \mathbf\ , where is an \ m \times m\ complex unitary matrix, \ \mathbf\ is an \ m \times n\ rectangular diagonal matrix with non-negative real numbers on the diagonal, is an n \times n complex unitary matrix, and \ \mathbf\ is the conjugate transpose of . Such decomposition always exists for any complex matrix. If is real, then and can be guaranteed to be real orthogonal matrices; in such contexts, the SVD is often denoted \ \mathbf^\mathsf\ . The diagonal entries \ \sigma_i = \Sigma_\ of \ \mathbf\ are uniquely determined by and are known as the singular values ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Spin (physics)
Spin is a conserved quantity carried by elementary particles, and thus by composite particles ( hadrons) and atomic nuclei. Spin is one of two types of angular momentum in quantum mechanics, the other being ''orbital angular momentum''. The orbital angular momentum operator is the quantum-mechanical counterpart to the classical angular momentum of orbital revolution and appears when there is periodic structure to its wavefunction as the angle varies. For photons, spin is the quantum-mechanical counterpart of the polarization of light; for electrons, the spin has no classical counterpart. The existence of electron spin angular momentum is inferred from experiments, such as the Stern–Gerlach experiment, in which silver atoms were observed to possess two possible discrete angular momenta despite having no orbital angular momentum. The existence of the electron spin can also be inferred theoretically from the spin–statistics theorem and from the Pauli exclusion principle— ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Orbital Angular Momentum Of Light
The orbital angular momentum of light (OAM) is the component of angular momentum of a light beam that is dependent on the field spatial distribution, and not on the polarization. It can be further split into an internal and an external OAM. The internal OAM is an origin-independent angular momentum of a light beam that can be associated with a helical or twisted wavefront. The external OAM is the origin-dependent angular momentum that can be obtained as cross product of the light beam position (center of the beam) and its total linear momentum. Introduction A beam of light carries a linear momentum \mathbf, and hence it can be also attributed an external angular momentum \mathbf_e=\mathbf\times\mathbf. This external angular momentum depends on the choice of the origin of the coordinate system. If one chooses the origin at the beam axis and the beam is cylindrically symmetric (at least in its momentum distribution), the external angular momentum will vanish. The external angula ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Qudit
In quantum computing, a qubit () or quantum bit is a basic unit of quantum information—the quantum version of the classic binary bit physically realized with a two-state device. A qubit is a two-state (or two-level) quantum-mechanical system, one of the simplest quantum systems displaying the peculiarity of quantum mechanics. Examples include the spin of the electron in which the two levels can be taken as spin up and spin down; or the polarization of a single photon in which the two states can be taken to be the vertical polarization and the horizontal polarization. In a classical system, a bit would have to be in one state or the other. However, quantum mechanics allows the qubit to be in a coherent superposition of both states simultaneously, a property that is fundamental to quantum mechanics and quantum computing. Etymology The coining of the term ''qubit'' is attributed to Benjamin Schumacher. In the acknowledgments of his 1995 paper, Schumacher states that the te ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Tensor
In mathematics, a tensor is an algebraic object that describes a multilinear relationship between sets of algebraic objects related to a vector space. Tensors may map between different objects such as vectors, scalars, and even other tensors. There are many types of tensors, including scalars and vectors (which are the simplest tensors), dual vectors, multilinear maps between vector spaces, and even some operations such as the dot product. Tensors are defined independent of any basis, although they are often referred to by their components in a basis related to a particular coordinate system. Tensors have become important in physics because they provide a concise mathematical framework for formulating and solving physics problems in areas such as mechanics ( stress, elasticity, fluid mechanics, moment of inertia, ...), electrodynamics ( electromagnetic tensor, Maxwell tensor, permittivity, magnetic susceptibility, ...), general relativity (stress–energy tenso ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Multipartite Entanglement
In the case of systems composed of m > 2 subsystems, the classification of quantum-entangled states is richer than in the bipartite case. Indeed, in multipartite entanglement apart from fully separable states and fully entangled states, there also exists the notion of partially separable states. Full and partial separability The definitions of fully separable and fully entangled multipartite states naturally generalizes that of separable and entangled states in the bipartite case, as follows. Full ''m''-partite separability (''m''-separability) of ''m'' systems The state \; \varrho_ of \; m subsystems \; A_1, \ldots, A_m with Hilbert space \; \mathcal_=\mathcal_\otimes\ldots\otimes \mathcal_ is fully separable if and only if it can be written in the form :\; \varrho_ = \sum_^k p_i \varrho_^i \otimes \ldots \otimes \varrho_^i. Correspondingly, the state \; \varrho_ is fully entangled if it cannot be written in the above form. As in the bipartite case, the set of \; m-sepa ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Von Neumann Entropy
In physics, the von Neumann entropy, named after John von Neumann, is an extension of the concept of Gibbs entropy from classical statistical mechanics to quantum statistical mechanics. For a quantum-mechanical system described by a density matrix , the von Neumann entropy is : S = - \operatorname(\rho \ln \rho), where \operatorname denotes the trace and ln denotes the (natural) matrix logarithm. If is written in terms of its eigenvectors , 1\rangle, , 2\rangle, , 3\rangle, \dots as : \rho = \sum_j \eta_j \left, j \right\rang \left\lang j \ , then the von Neumann entropy is merely : S = -\sum_j \eta_j \ln \eta_j . In this form, ''S'' can be seen as the information theoretic Shannon entropy. The von Neumann entropy is also used in different forms ( conditional entropies, relative entropies, etc.) in the framework of quantum information theory to characterize the entropy of entanglement. Background John von Neumann established a rigorous mathematical framework for quan ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Separable State
In quantum mechanics, separable states are quantum states belonging to a composite space that can be factored into individual states belonging to separate subspaces. A state is said to be entangled if it is not separable. In general, determining if a state is separable is not straightforward and the problem is classed as NP-hard. Separability of bipartite systems Consider first composite states with two degrees of freedom, referred to as ''bipartite states''. By a postulate of quantum mechanics these can be described as vectors in the tensor product space H_1\otimes H_2. In this discussion we will focus on the case of the Hilbert spaces H_1 and H_2 being finite-dimensional. Pure states Let \_^n\subset H_1 and \_^m \subset H_2 be orthonormal bases for H_1 and H_2, respectively. A basis for H_1 \otimes H_2 is then \, or in more compact notation \. From the very definition of the tensor product, any vector of norm 1, i.e. a pure state of the composite system, can be written a ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
