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Radionuclides Associated With Hydraulic Fracturing
Radioactive sources are used for logging formation parameters. Radioactive tracers, along with the other substances in hydraulic-fracturing fluid, are sometimes used to determine the injection profile and location of fractures created by hydraulic fracturing. Use of radioactive sources for logging Sealed radioactive sources are routinely used in formation evaluation of both hydraulically fractured and non-fracked wells. The sources are lowered into the borehole as part of the well logging tools, and are removed from the borehole before any hydraulic fracturing takes place. Measurement of formation density is made using a sealed caesium-137 source. This bombards the formation with high energy gamma rays. The attenuation of these gamma rays gives an accurate measure of formation density; this has been a standard oilfield tool since 1965. Another source is americium berylium (Am-Be) neutron source used in evaluation of the porosity of the formation, and this has been used since 1950 ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Sodium-24
There are 22 isotopes of sodium (11Na), ranging from to , and two isomers ( and ). is the only stable (and the only primordial) isotope. It is considered a monoisotopic element and it has a standard atomic weight of . Sodium has two radioactive cosmogenic isotopes (, with a half-life of ; and , with a half-life of ). With the exception of those two isotopes, all other isotopes have half-lives under a minute, most under a second. The shortest-lived is , with a half-life of seconds. Acute neutron radiation exposure (e.g., from a nuclear criticality accident) converts some of the stable in human blood plasma to . By measuring the concentration of this isotope, the neutron radiation dosage to the victim can be computed. is a positron-emitting isotope with a remarkably long half-life. It is used to create test-objects and point-sources for positron emission tomography. List of isotopes , - , , style="text-align:right" , 11 , style="text-align:right" , 6 , , , p , ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
United States Environmental Protection Agency
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is an independent executive agency of the United States federal government tasked with environmental protection matters. President Richard Nixon proposed the establishment of EPA on July 9, 1970; it began operation on December 2, 1970, after Nixon signed an executive order. The order establishing the EPA was ratified by committee hearings in the House and Senate. The agency is led by its administrator, who is appointed by the president and approved by the Senate. The current administrator is Michael S. Regan. The EPA is not a Cabinet department, but the administrator is normally given cabinet rank. The EPA has its headquarters in Washington, D.C., regional offices for each of the agency's ten regions and 27 laboratories. The agency conducts environmental assessment, research, and education. It has the responsibility of maintaining and enforcing national standards under a variety of environmental laws, in consultation with state, tr ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Hydraulic Fracturing Proppants
A proppant is a solid material, typically sand, treated sand or man-made ceramic materials, designed to keep an induced hydraulic fracture open, during or following a fracturing treatment, most commonly for unconventional reservoirs. It is added to a ''fracking fluid'' which may vary in composition depending on the type of fracturing used, and can be gel, foam or slickwater–based. In addition, there may be unconventional fracking fluids. Fluids make tradeoffs in such material properties as viscosity, where more viscous fluids can carry more concentrated proppant; the energy or pressure demands to maintain a certain flux pump rate (flow velocity) that will conduct the proppant appropriately; pH, various rheological factors, among others. In addition, fluids may be used in low-volume well stimulation of high-permeability sandstone wells (20k to 80k gallons per well) to the high-volume operations such as shale gas and tight gas that use millions of gallons of water per well. Co ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
List Of Additives For Hydraulic Fracturing
The differences between additives for fracking in different countries are the type of chemicals used (hazardous, non-hazardous), the disclosure of chemicals and the composition of fracturing fluid. In 2010, Halliburton announced the creation of food additive based hydraulic fracturing fluid in response to calls for transparency and demand for a "more environmentally friendly" unconventional hydrocarbon production. Europe In Europe, Poland, Norway and Germany have the largest reserves of shale gas, and drillings are underway. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, the environmental regulator permits only chemical additives which are classed as non hazardous to groundwater for fracturing fluids. Operators are required to disclose the content of hydraulic fracturing fluids to the relevant environment agency while the composition must be disclosed if the regulator demands it. The permitted additives for hydraulic fracturing fluid include polycrylamide, hydrochloric acid and a bi ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Pennsylvania Department Of Environmental Protection
The Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) is the agency in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania responsible for protecting and preserving the land, air, water, and public health through enforcement of the state's environmental laws. It was created by Act 18 of 1995, which split the Department of Environmental Resources into the Department of Environmental Protection and the Department of Conservation and Natural Resources. Its current acting secretary is Ramez Ziadeh. The Department of Environmental Resources was created by Act 275 of 1970, which abolished the Department of Forest and Waters. The Department of Forest and Waters was created by the General Assembly in 1901. The Department of Environmental Protection is charged with the responsibility for development of a balanced ecological system incorporating social, cultural, and economic needs of the commonwealth through development and protection. The department is responsible for the state's land, air, and water ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Hydraulic Fracturing In The United States
Fracking in the United States began in 1949. According to the Department of Energy (DOE), by 2013 at least two million oil and gas wells in the US had been hydraulically fractured, and that of new wells being drilled, up to 95% are hydraulically fractured. The output from these wells makes up 43% of the oil production and 67% of the natural gas production in the United States.US Dept. of EnergyHow is shale gas produced? Apr. 2013. Environmental safety and health concerns about hydraulic fracturing emerged in the 1980s, and are still being debated at the state and federal levels. New York banned massive hydraulic fracturing by executive order in 2010, so all natural gas production in the state is from wells drilled prior to the ban. Vermont, which has no known frackable gas reserves, banned fracking preventatively in May 2012. In March 2017, Maryland became the second state in the US with proven gas reserves to pass a law banning fracking. On May 8, 2019, Washington became the ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Iodine-125
Iodine-125 (125I) is a radioisotope of iodine which has uses in biological assays, nuclear medicine imaging and in radiation therapy as brachytherapy to treat a number of conditions, including prostate cancer, uveal melanomas, and brain tumors. It is the second longest-lived radioisotope of iodine, after iodine-129. Its half-life is 59.49 days and it decays by electron capture to an excited state of tellurium-125. This state is not the metastable 125mTe, but rather a lower energy state that decays immediately by gamma decay with a maximum energy of 35 keV. Some of the excess energy of the excited 125Te may be internally converted ejected electrons (also at 35 keV), or to x-rays (from electron bremsstrahlung), and also a total of 21 Auger electrons, which are produced at the low energies of 50 to 500 electron volts. Eventually, stable ground state 125Te is produced as the final decay product. In medical applications, the internal conversion and Auger electrons cause little dam ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Hydrogen-3
Tritium ( or , ) or hydrogen-3 (symbol T or H) is a rare and radioactive isotope of hydrogen with half-life about 12 years. The nucleus of tritium (t, sometimes called a ''triton'') contains one proton and two neutrons, whereas the nucleus of the common isotope hydrogen-1 (''protium'') contains one proton and zero neutrons, and that of hydrogen-2 (''deuterium'') contains one proton and one neutron. Naturally occurring tritium is extremely rare on Earth. The atmosphere has only trace amounts, formed by the interaction of its gases with cosmic rays. It can be produced artificially by irradiating lithium metal or lithium-bearing ceramic pebbles in a nuclear reactor and is a low-abundance byproduct in normal operations of nuclear reactors. Tritium is used as the energy source in radioluminescent lights for watches, gun sights, numerous instruments and tools, and even novelty items such as self-illuminating key chains. It is used in a medical and scientific setting as a radioactive ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Carbon-14
Carbon-14, C-14, or radiocarbon, is a radioactive isotope of carbon with an atomic nucleus containing 6 protons and 8 neutrons. Its presence in organic materials is the basis of the radiocarbon dating method pioneered by Willard Libby and colleagues (1949) to date archaeological, geological and hydrogeological samples. Carbon-14 was discovered on February 27, 1940, by Martin Kamen and Sam Ruben at the University of California Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley, California. Its existence had been suggested by Franz N. D. Kurie, Franz Kurie in 1934. There are three naturally occurring isotopes of carbon on Earth: carbon-12 (), which makes up 99% of all carbon on Earth; carbon-13 (), which makes up 1%; and carbon-14 (), which occurs in trace amounts, making up about 1 or 1.5 atoms per 1012 atoms of carbon in the atmosphere. Carbon-12 and carbon-13 are both stable, while carbon-14 is unstable and has a half-life of 5,730 ± 40 years. Carbon-14 decays into nitrogen-14 () through bet ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Bromine-82
Bromine (35Br) has two stable isotopes, 79Br and 81Br, and 32 known radioisotopes, the most stable of which is 77Br, with a half-life of 57.036 hours. List of isotopes , - , 68Br , style="text-align:right" , 35 , style="text-align:right" , 33 , 67.95836(28)# , ~50 ns , p , 67Se , 3+# , , , - , 69Br , style="text-align:right" , 35 , style="text-align:right" , 34 , 68.95011(11)# , 99.9%) , 72Br , rowspan=2, 1− , rowspan=2, , rowspan=2, , - , β+ (<0.1%) , 72Se , - , 73Br , style="text-align:right" , 35 , style="text-align:right" , 38 , 72.93169(5) , 3.4(2) min , β+ , 73Se , 1/2− , , , - , 74Br , style="text-align:right" , 35 , style="text-align:right" , 39 , 73.929891(16) , 25.4(3) min , β+ , 74Se , (0−) , , , - , style="text-indent:1em" , 74mBr , colspan="3" style="text-indent:2em" , 13.58(21) keV , 46(2) ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Xenon-133
Naturally occurring xenon (54Xe) consists of seven stable isotopes and two very long-lived isotopes. Double electron capture has been observed in 124Xe (half-life ) and double beta decay in 136Xe (half-life ), which are among the longest measured half-lives of all nuclides. The isotopes 126Xe and 134Xe are also predicted to undergo double beta decay, but this has never been observed in these isotopes, so they are considered to be stable. Beyond these stable forms, 32 artificial unstable isotopes and various isomers have been studied, the longest-lived of which is 127Xe with a half-life of 36.345 days. All other isotopes have half-lives less than 12 days, most less than 20 hours. The shortest-lived isotope, 108Xe, has a half-life of 58 μs, and is the heaviest known nuclide with equal numbers of protons and neutrons. Of known isomers, the longest-lived is 131mXe with a half-life of 11.934 days. 129Xe is produced by beta decay of 129I (half-life: 16 million years); 131mXe, 133Xe ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
