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Project 4.1
Project 4.1 was the designation for a medical study and experimentation conducted by the United States of those residents of the Marshall Islands exposed to radioactive fallout from the March 1, 1954 ''Castle Bravo'' nuclear test at Bikini Atoll, which had an unexpectedly large yield. Government and mainstream historical sources point to the study being organized on March 6 or March 7, 1954, six days after the ''Bravo'' shot. Establishment and secrecy In the wake of the Castle Bravo detonation, a new research section was added to the ''Castle Bravo'' Weapons Effects research section. Program 4, "Biomedical effects," was to include one project, Project 4.1, titled "Study of Response of Human Beings exposed to Significant Beta and Gamma Radiation due to Fall-out from High-Yield Weapons." Eugene P. Cronkite of the National Naval Medical Center was designated as Project Officer. Cronkite's instructions stressed the importance of secrecy surrounding the project: The purpose of th ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Project 4
Project Four Racing was a British Formula Two and Formula Three team. The team was founded in 1976 by former Brabham mechanic Ron Dennis. At the end of 1980, the team merged with the McLaren Formula One team. The team name lived on in the designation of the McLaren F1 race cars from to the season, all McLarens, starting with the John Barnard designed McLaren MP4/1, had carried the "MP4" name, with MP4 standing for "Marlboro Project 4" and later "McLaren Project 4". The road car McLaren MP4-12C also carried the prefix until it was dropped for the 2012 model year. From onward, after the departure of Dennis from McLaren, the team began to designate their cars with the name "MCL". Racing history Formula Two The team competed in the European Formula Two Championship. Driving a BMW powered Ralt RT1, Eddie Cheever recorded the team's first race win in in the second of two races making up Round 4 at the Nürburgring on his way to finishing second for the round. Cheever then went o ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
USS Nicholas (DD-449)
USS ''Nicholas'' (DD/DDE-449) was a ''Fletcher''-class destroyer of the United States Navy, serving for a total of 27 years, including through most of World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War. She was the second Navy ship to be named for Major Samuel Nicholas. ''Nicholas'' was laid down 3 March 1941 by the Bath Iron Works Corp., Bath, Maine, launched 19 February 1942; sponsored by Mrs. Edward B. Tryon, descendant of Major Nicholas; and commissioned 4 June 1942. 1942 Destined to serve in the Pacific through three armed conflicts, ''Nicholas'', assigned to Destroyer Squadron 21 (DesRon 21), departed New York City 23 August 1942, sailing in the screen of ''Washington'' (BB-56), transited the Panama Canal, and continued on to the Central Pacific, arriving at Espiritu Santo 27 September. Three days later she began escorting Guadalcanal-bound troop and supply convoys. Into 1943 she screened the convoys assembled at Espiritu Santo and Nouméa to "Cactus" area (Guadalcan ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Ailinginae Atoll
Ailinginae Atoll ( Marshallese: , ) is an uninhabited (due to Castle Bravo nuclear testing) coral atoll of 25 islands in the Pacific Ocean, on the northern end of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands. Its total land area is only , but it encloses a lagoon of . It is located approximately west of Rongelap Atoll. The landscape is low-lying with only the top above sea level. The two entrances into the lagoon are ' Mogiri Pass' and ' Eniibukku Pass'. These are wide respectively. The average temperature of these islands is about during daytime and slightly warmer during night-time due to cold weather associated with rain showers during daytime. The rainy season is from September through November. The island is covered with 29 species of plants scrub, grasses and some stands of Pisonia grandis trees. History The first sighting recorded by Europeans was by the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Saavedra on 1 January 1528. Together with Utirik Atoll and Rongelap Atoll, they were chart ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Rongelap Atoll
Rongelap Atoll (Marshallese language, Marshallese: , ) is a coral atoll of 61 islands (or motu (geography), motus) in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands. Its total land area is . It encloses a lagoon with an area of . It is historically notable for its close proximity to US hydrogen bomb tests in 1954, and was particularly devastated by fallout from the Castle Bravo test. The population was forcibly removed from Rongelap following the test due to high radiation levels, and later studied due to their exposure to radiation. However, according to the most recent census in 2011 it has begun to recover with about eighty people living on the atoll. History The first sighting recorded by Europeans was by Spanish people, Spanish navigator Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón, Álvaro de Saavedra on 1 January 1528. Together with Utirik Atoll, Utirik, Ailinginae Atoll , Ailinginae and Toke Atoll, Toke atolls, they were charted as ''Isl ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Utirik Atoll
Utirik Atoll or Utrik Atoll ( Marshallese: , ) is a coral atoll of 10 islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands. Its total land area is only , but it encloses a lagoon with an area of . It is located approximately east of Ujae Atoll. The population of Utirik Atoll is 300-400 as of 2020. it is one of the northernmost Marshall Islands with permanent habitation. The larger islets are: * Utirik () * Aon () * Bikrak () * Pike () * Āllok () * Nalap () History Historical artifacts have been unearthed on the Atoll which date back to ca. 380 C.E., including tools likely used by early Micronesian peoples The Micronesians or Micronesian peoples are various closely related ethnic groups native to Micronesia, a region of Oceania in the Pacific Ocean. They are a part of the Austronesian ethnolinguistic group, which has an Urheimat in Taiwan. Ethno .... Its first recorded sighting was by the Spanish navigator Álvaro de S ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Cold War
The Cold War is a term commonly used to refer to a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc. The term '' cold war'' is used because there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two superpowers, but they each supported major regional conflicts known as proxy wars. The conflict was based around the ideological and geopolitical struggle for global influence by these two superpowers, following their temporary alliance and victory against Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan in 1945. Aside from the nuclear arsenal development and conventional military deployment, the struggle for dominance was expressed via indirect means such as psychological warfare, propaganda campaigns, espionage, far-reaching embargoes, rivalry at sports events, and technological competitions such as the Space Race. The Western Bloc was led by the United States as well as a number of other First W ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Human Radiation Experiments
Since the discovery of ionizing radiation, a number of human radiation experiments have been performed to understand the effects of ionizing radiation and radioactive contamination on the human body, specifically with the element plutonium. Experiments performed in the United States Numerous human radiation experiments have been performed in the United States, many of which were funded by various U.S. government agencies such as the United States Department of Defense, the United States Atomic Energy Commission, and the United States Public Health Service. Experiments including: * feeding radioactive material to mentally disabled childrenThe Plutonium Files: America's secret medical experiments in the Cold War, by Eileen Welsome, Dial Press, c1999, New York, N.Y., * enlisting doctors to administer radioactive iron to impoverished pregnant women * exposing U.S. soldiers and prisoners to high levels of radiation * irradiating the testicles of prisoners, which caused severe bir ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Informed Consent
Informed consent is a principle in medical ethics and medical law, that a patient must have sufficient information and understanding before making decisions about their medical care. Pertinent information may include risks and benefits of treatments, alternative treatments, the patient's role in treatment, and their right to refuse treatment. In most systems, healthcare providers have a legal and ethical responsibility to ensure that a patient's consent is informed. This principle applies more broadly than healthcare intervention, for example to conduct research and to disclosing a person's medical information. Definitions of informed consent vary, and the standard required is generally determined by the state. Informed consent requires a clear appreciation and understanding of the facts, implications, and consequences of an action. To give informed consent, the individual concerned must have adequate reasoning faculties and possess all relevant facts. Impairments to reasoning an ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Nuclear Weapon Design
Nuclear weapon designs are physical, chemical, and engineering arrangements that cause the physics package of a nuclear weapon to detonate. There are three existing basic design types: * pure fission weapons, the simplest and least technically demanding, were the first nuclear weapons built and have so far been the only type ever used in warfare (by the United States on Empire of Japan, Japan during World War II, WWII). * boosted fission weapons increase yield beyond that of the implosion design by using small quantities of fusion fuel to enhance the fission chain reaction. Boosting can more than double the weapon's fission energy yield. * thermonuclear weapon, staged thermonuclear weapons are essentially arrangements of two or more "stages", most usually two. The first stage is normally a boosted fission weapon as above (except for the earliest thermonuclear weapons, which used a pure fission weapon instead). Its detonation causes it to shine intensely with x-radiation, which ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Nuclear Warfare
Nuclear warfare, also known as atomic warfare, is a theoretical military conflict or prepared political strategy that deploys nuclear weaponry. Nuclear weapons are weapons of mass destruction; in contrast to conventional warfare, nuclear warfare can produce destruction in a much shorter time and can have a long-lasting radiological result. A major nuclear exchange would likely have long-term effects, primarily from the fallout released, and could also lead to secondary effects, such as " nuclear winter", nuclear famine and societal collapse. A global thermonuclear war with Cold War-era stockpiles, or even with the current smaller stockpiles, may lead to various scenarios including the extinction of the human race. To date, the only use of nuclear weapons in armed conflict occurred in 1945 with the American atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. On August 6, 1945, a uranium gun-type device (code name "Little Boy") was detonated over the Japanese city of Hiroshi ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Trust Territory Of The Pacific Islands
The Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI) was a United Nations trust territory in Micronesia administered by the United States from 1947 to 1994. History Spain initially claimed the islands that later composed the territory of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI).''Encyclopædia Britannica''Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands/ref> Subsequently, Germany established competing claims over the islands. The competing claims were eventually resolved in favor of Germany when Spain, following its loss of several possessions to the United States during the Spanish–American War, ceded its claims over the islands to Germany pursuant to the German–Spanish Treaty (1899). Germany, in turn, continued to retain possession until the islands were captured by Japan during World War I. The League of Nations formally placed the islands in the former South Seas Mandate, a mandate that authorized Japanese administration of the islands. The islands then remained under Jap ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Ataji Balos
Ataji Balos is a Marshallese politician who was a member of the Congress of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. During the Trust Territory era, his activism concerning Marshall Islands–United States relations included a sit-in that delayed testing of U.S. military technology as well as advocacy for the people affected by United States nuclear testing in the Marshall Islands. He attended the University of Guam University of Guam ( ch, Unibetsedåt Guåhan) (U.O.G.) is a public land-grant university in Mangilao, Guam. It is accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges and offers thirty-four degree programs at the undergraduate level a ... and worked as a teacher early in his career. References {{DEFAULTSORT:Balos, Ataji Marshallese politicians ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
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