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Photoacid
Photoacids are molecules which become more acidic upon absorption of light. Either the light causes a photodissociation to produce a strong acid or the light causes photoassociation (such as a ring forming reaction) that leads to an increased acidity and dissociation of a proton. There are two main types of molecules that release protons upon illumination: photoacid generators (PAGs) and photoacids (PAHs). PAGs undergo proton photodissociation irreversibly, while PAHs are molecules that undergo proton photodissociation and thermal reassociation. In this latter case, the excited state is strongly acidic, but reversible. Photoacid generators An example due to photodissociation is triphenylsulfonium triflate. This colourless salt consists of a sulfonium cation and the triflate anion. Many related salts are known including those with other noncoordinating anions and those with diverse substituents on the phenyl rings. The triphenylsulfonium salts absorb at a wavelength of 233&n ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Photodissociation
Photodissociation, photolysis, photodecomposition, or photofragmentation is a chemical reaction in which molecules of a chemical compound are broken down by photons. It is defined as the interaction of one or more photons with one target molecule. Photodissociation is not limited to visible light. Any photon with sufficient energy can affect the chemical bonds of a chemical compound. Since a photon's energy is inversely proportional to its wavelength, electromagnetic radiations with the energy of visible light or higher, such as ultraviolet light, x-rays, and gamma rays can induce such reactions. Photolysis in photosynthesis Photolysis is part of the light-dependent reaction or light phase or photochemical phase or Hill reaction of photosynthesis. The general reaction of photosynthetic photolysis can be given in terms of photons as: :\ce + 2 \text \longrightarrow \ce The chemical nature of "A" depends on the type of organism. Purple sulfur bacteria oxidize hydrogen sulfide () ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Theodor Förster
Theodor Förster (May 15, 1910 – May 20, 1974) was a German physical chemist known for theoretical work on light-matter interaction in molecular systems such as fluorescence and resonant energy transfer. Education and career Förster studied at the University of Frankfurt and received his Ph.D. at the age of only 23 under Erwin Madelung in 1933. In the same year he joined the Nazi Party and the SA. He then joined Karl-Friedrich Bonhoeffer as a research assistant at the Leipzig University, where he worked closely with Peter Debye, Werner Heisenberg, and Hans Kautzky. Förster obtained his habilitation in 1940 and became a lecturer at the Leipzig University. Following his research and teaching activities in Leipzig, he became a professor at the Poznań University in occupied Poland (1942). From 1947 to 1951 he worked at the Max Planck Institute for Physical Chemistry in Göttingen as a department head. In 1951, he became a professor at the University of Stuttgart. He passed ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Molecule
A molecule is a group of two or more atoms held together by attractive forces known as chemical bonds; depending on context, the term may or may not include ions which satisfy this criterion. In quantum physics, organic chemistry, and biochemistry, the distinction from ions is dropped and ''molecule'' is often used when referring to polyatomic ions. A molecule may be homonuclear, that is, it consists of atoms of one chemical element, e.g. two atoms in the oxygen molecule (O2); or it may be heteronuclear, a chemical compound composed of more than one element, e.g. water (two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom; H2O). In the kinetic theory of gases, the term ''molecule'' is often used for any gaseous particle regardless of its composition. This relaxes the requirement that a molecule contains two or more atoms, since the noble gases are individual atoms. Atoms and complexes connected by non-covalent interactions, such as hydrogen bonds or ionic bonds, are typically not consid ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Triflic Acid
Triflic acid, the short name for trifluoromethanesulfonic acid, TFMS, TFSA, HOTf or TfOH, is a sulfonic acid with the chemical formula CF3SO3H. It is one of the strongest known acids. Triflic acid is mainly used in research as a catalyst for esterification. It is a hygroscopic, colorless, slightly viscous liquid and is soluble in polar solvents. Synthesis Trifluoromethanesulfonic acid is produced industrially by electrochemical fluorination (ECF) of methanesulfonic acid: : CH3SO3H + 4 HF ->CF3SO2F + H2O + 3 H2 The resulting CF3SO2F is hydrolyzed, and the resulting triflate salt is reprotonated. Alternatively, trifluoromethanesulfonic acid arises by oxidation of trifluoromethyl sulfenyl chloride: :CF3SCl + 2 Cl2 + 3 H2O -> CF3SO3H + 5 HCl Triflic acid is purified by distillation from triflic anhydride. Historical Trifluoromethanesulfonic acid was first synthesized in 1954 by Robert Haszeldine and Kidd by the following reaction: : Reactions As an acid In the laboratory, trifl ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Microtechnology
Microtechnology deals with technology whose features have dimensions of the order of one micrometre (one millionth of a metre, or 10−6 metre, or 1μm). It focuses on physical and chemical processes as well as the production or manipulation of structures with one-micrometre magnitude. Development Around 1970, scientists learned that by arraying large numbers of microscopic transistors on a single chip, microelectronic circuits could be built that dramatically improved performance, functionality, and reliability, all while reducing cost and increasing volume. This development led to the Information Revolution. More recently, scientists have learned that not only electrical devices, but also mechanical devices, may be miniaturized and batch-fabricated, promising the same benefits to the mechanical world as integrated circuit technology has given to the electrical world. While electronics now provide the ‘brains’ for today's advanced systems and products, micro-mechanical devic ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Lithography (microfabrication)
Lithography () is a planographic method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone (lithographic limestone) or a metal plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by the German author and actor Alois Senefelder and was initially used mostly for musical scores and maps.Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. (1998) John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p 146 Carter, Rob, Ben Day, Philip Meggs. Typographic Design: Form and Communication, Third Edition. (2002) John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p 11 Lithography can be used to print text or images onto paper or other suitable material. A lithograph is something printed by lithography, but this term is only used for fine art prints and some other, mostly older, types of printed matter, not for those made by modern commercial lithography. Originally, the image to be printed was drawn with a greasy substance, such as oil, fat, or wax onto the surface of a smooth and flat limestone plat ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Photochemistry
Photochemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the chemical effects of light. Generally, this term is used to describe a chemical reaction caused by absorption of ultraviolet (wavelength from 100 to 400 nm), visible light (400–750 nm) or infrared radiation (750–2500 nm). In nature, photochemistry is of immense importance as it is the basis of photosynthesis, vision, and the formation of vitamin D with sunlight. Photochemical reactions proceed differently than temperature-driven reactions. Photochemical paths access high energy intermediates that cannot be generated thermally, thereby overcoming large activation barriers in a short period of time, and allowing reactions otherwise inaccessible by thermal processes. Photochemistry can also be destructive, as illustrated by the photodegradation of plastics. Concept Grotthuss–Draper law and Stark-Einstein law Photoexcitation is the first step in a photochemical process where the reactant is elevated ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Acid Dissociation Constant
In chemistry, an acid dissociation constant (also known as acidity constant, or acid-ionization constant; denoted ) is a quantitative measure of the strength of an acid in solution. It is the equilibrium constant for a chemical reaction :HA A^- + H^+ known as dissociation in the context of acid–base reactions. The chemical species HA is an acid that dissociates into , the conjugate base of the acid and a hydrogen ion, . The system is said to be in equilibrium when the concentrations of its components will not change over time, because both forward and backward reactions are occurring at the same rate. The dissociation constant is defined by :K_\text = \mathrm, or :\mathrmK_\ce = - \log_ K_\text = \log_\frac where quantities in square brackets represent the concentrations of the species at equilibrium. Theoretical background The acid dissociation constant for an acid is a direct consequence of the underlying thermodynamics of the dissociation reaction; the p''K''a v ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Pyranine
Pyranine is a hydrophilic, pH-sensitive fluorescent dye from the group of chemicals known as arylsulfonates. Pyranine is soluble in water and has applications as a coloring agent, biological stain, optical detecting reagent, and a pH indicator. One example would be the measurement of intracellular pH. Pyranine is also found in yellow highlighters, giving them their characteristic fluorescence and bright yellow-green colour. It is also found in some types of soap. Synthesis It is synthesized from pyrenetetrasulfonic acid and a solution of sodium hydroxide in water under reflux. The trisodium salt crystallizes as yellow needles when adding an aqueous solution of sodium chloride. See also * Fluorescein * Fluorescence References {{reflist External links CTD's Pyranine pagefrom the Comparative Toxicogenomics Database The Comparative Toxicogenomics Database (CTD) is a public website and research tool launched in November 2004 that curates scientific data describing relatio ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Epoxide
In organic chemistry, an epoxide is a cyclic ether () with a three-atom ring. This ring approximates an equilateral triangle, which makes it strained, and hence highly reactive, more so than other ethers. They are produced on a large scale for many applications. In general, low molecular weight epoxides are colourless and nonpolar, and often volatile. Nomenclature A compound containing the epoxide functional group can be called an epoxy, epoxide, oxirane, and ethoxyline. Simple epoxides are often referred to as oxides. Thus, the epoxide of ethylene (C2H4) is ethylene oxide (C2H4O). Many compounds have trivial names; for instance, ethylene oxide is called "oxirane". Some names emphasize the presence of the epoxide functional group, as in the compound ''1,2-epoxyheptane'', which can also be called ''1,2-heptene oxide''. A polymer formed from epoxide precursors is called an ''epoxy'', but such materials do not contain epoxide groups (or contain only a few residual epoxy grou ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Polymerization
In polymer chemistry, polymerization (American English), or polymerisation (British English), is a process of reacting monomer, monomer molecules together in a chemical reaction to form polymer chains or three-dimensional networks. There are many forms of polymerization and different systems exist to categorize them. In chemical compounds, polymerization can occur via a variety of reaction mechanisms that vary in complexity due to the functional groups present in the reactants and their inherent steric effects. In more straightforward polymerizations, alkenes form polymers through relatively simple free-radical reaction, radical reactions; in contrast, reactions involving substitution at a carbonyl group require more complex synthesis due to the way in which reactants polymerize. Alkanes can also be polymerized, but only with the help of strong acids. As alkenes can polymerize in somewhat straightforward radical reactions, they form useful compounds such as polyethylene and p ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Photolithography
In integrated circuit manufacturing, photolithography or optical lithography is a general term used for techniques that use light to produce minutely patterned thin films of suitable materials over a substrate, such as a silicon wafer, to protect selected areas of it during subsequent etching, deposition, or implantation operations. Typically, ultraviolet light is used to transfer a geometric design from an optical mask to a light-sensitive chemical (photoresist) coated on the substrate. The photoresist either breaks down or hardens where it is exposed to light. The patterned film is then created by removing the softer parts of the coating with appropriate solvents. Conventional photoresists typically consists of three components: resin, sensitizer, and solvent. Photolithography processes can be classified according to the type of light used, such as ultraviolet, deep ultraviolet, extreme ultraviolet, or X-ray. The wavelength of light used determines the minimum feature si ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
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