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Para-aminohippuric Acid
Aminohippuric acid or ''para''-aminohippuric acid (PAH), a derivative of hippuric acid, is a diagnostic agent useful in medical tests involving the kidney used in the measurement of renal plasma flow. It is an amide derivative of the amino acid glycine and ''para''-aminobenzoic acid that is not naturally found in humans; it needs to be IV infused before diagnostic use. Uses Diagnostics PAH is useful for the measurement of renal plasma flow. The renal extraction ratio of PAH in a normal individual is approximately 0.92. This means that unlike inulin and creatinine, which are filtered in the glomerulus and ignored by the rest of the kidney, aminohippuric acid is both filtered and secreted, being almost entirely removed from the bloodstream in a normal kidney. Pharmaceuticals Aminohippuric acid is often used as the sodium salt sodium ''para''-aminohippurate. During World War II, ''para''-aminohippurate was given along with penicillin in order to prolong the time penicillin circu ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Hippuric Acid
Hippuric acid ( Gr. ''hippos'', horse, ''ouron'', urine) is a carboxylic acid and organic compound. It is found in urine and is formed from the combination of benzoic acid and glycine. Levels of hippuric acid rise with the consumption of phenolic compounds (such as fruit juice, tea and wine). The phenols are first converted to benzoic acid, and then to hippuric acid and excreted in urine. Hippuric acid crystallizes in rhombic prisms which are readily soluble in hot water, melt at 187 °C, and decompose at about 240 °C. High concentrations of hippuric acid may also indicate a toluene intoxication; however, scientists have called this correlation into question because there are other variables that affect levels of hippuric acid. When many aromatic compounds such as benzoic acid and toluene are taken internally, they are converted to hippuric acid by reaction with the amino acid, glycine. Synthesis A modern synthesis of hippuric acid involves the acylation of glycin ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Glomerulus
''Glomerulus'' () is a common term used in anatomy to describe globular structures of entwined vessels, fibers, or neurons. ''Glomerulus'' is the diminutive of the Latin ''glomus'', meaning "ball of yarn". ''Glomerulus'' may refer to: * the filtering unit of the kidney; see Glomerulus (kidney). * a structure in the olfactory bulb; see Glomerulus (olfaction). * the contact between specific cells in the cerebellum; see Glomerulus (cerebellum) The cerebellar glomerulus is a small, intertwined mass of nerve fiber terminals in the granular layer of the cerebellar cortex. It consists of post-synaptic granule cell dendrites and pre-synaptic Golgi cell axon terminals surrounding the pre- .... See also * Glomerulation, a hemorrhage of the bladder {{SIA ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Amino Acid Derivatives
In chemistry, amines (, ) are compounds and functional groups that contain a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair. Amines are formally derivatives of ammonia (), wherein one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by a substituent such as an alkyl or aryl group (these may respectively be called alkylamines and arylamines; amines in which both types of substituent are attached to one nitrogen atom may be called alkylarylamines). Important amines include amino acids, biogenic amines, trimethylamine, and aniline; Inorganic derivatives of ammonia are also called amines, such as monochloramine (). The substituent is called an amino group. Compounds with a nitrogen atom attached to a carbonyl group, thus having the structure , are called amides and have different chemical properties from amines. Classification of amines Amines can be classified according to the nature and number of substituents on nitrogen. Aliphatic amines contain only H and alkyl substituents. Aromatic ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Ortho-iodohippurate
''ortho''-Iodohippuric acid (''ortho''-iodohippurate, OIH) is an analog of ''p''-aminohippuric acid for the determination of effective renal plasma flow. Labelled OIH has a significantly higher clearance than other radiopharmaceutical yet developed and is eminently suitable for renography. It is eliminated mainly by tubular secretion. In patients with normally functioning kidneys, 85% of the OIH may be found in the urine 30 minutes after intravenous injection. OIH was first labelled with 131I by Tubis and colleagues (Tubis, Posnick and Nordyke in 1960) and for many years this was the only radiopharmaceutical for renography. 131I has a half-life of 8 days and emits high-energy γ rays (364 keV) in addition to β particles. These physical characteristics were acceptable for probe studies when quantities of the order 1-2 MBq (25-50 μCi) were administered, but they are far from ideal for γ-camera studies which demand a higher activity and a γ ray emission of ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
PAH Clearance
Para-aminohippurate (PAH) clearance is a method used in renal physiology to measure renal plasma flow, which is a measure of renal function. PAH is completely removed from blood that passes through the kidneys (PAH undergoes both glomerular filtration and tubular secretion), and therefore the rate at which the kidneys can clear PAH from the blood reflects total renal plasma flow. The concentration of PAH is measured in one arterial blood sample (PPAH) and one urine sample(UPAH). The urine flow (V) is also measured. Renal perfusion flow is then calculated by: :RPF = \frac V What is calculated is the effective renal plasma flow (eRPF). However, since the renal extraction ratio of PAH almost equals 1, then eRPF almost equals RPF. Precision The renal extraction ratio of PAH in a normal individual is approximately 0.92, and thus not exactly 1.0. Thus, this method usually underestimates RPF by approximately 10%. This margin of error is generally acceptable considering the ease ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Salt (chemistry)
In chemistry, a salt is a chemical compound consisting of an ionic assembly of positively charged cations and negatively charged anions, which results in a compound with no net electric charge. A common example is table salt, with positively charged sodium ions and negatively charged chloride ions. The component ions in a salt compound can be either inorganic, such as chloride (Cl−), or organic, such as acetate (). Each ion can be either monatomic, such as fluoride (F−), or polyatomic, such as sulfate (). Types of salt Salts can be classified in a variety of ways. Salts that produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in water are called ''alkali salts'' and salts that produce hydrogen ions when dissolved in water are called ''acid salts''. ''Neutral salts'' are those salts that are neither acidic nor basic. Zwitterions contain an anionic and a cationic centre in the same molecule, but are not considered salts. Examples of zwitterions are amino acids, many metabolites, peptid ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Sodium
Sodium is a chemical element with the symbol Na (from Latin ''natrium'') and atomic number 11. It is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal. Sodium is an alkali metal, being in group 1 of the periodic table. Its only stable isotope is 23Na. The free metal does not occur in nature, and must be prepared from compounds. Sodium is the sixth most abundant element in the Earth's crust and exists in numerous minerals such as feldspars, sodalite, and halite (NaCl). Many salts of sodium are highly water-soluble: sodium ions have been leached by the action of water from the Earth's minerals over eons, and thus sodium and chlorine are the most common dissolved elements by weight in the oceans. Sodium was first isolated by Humphry Davy in 1807 by the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide. Among many other useful sodium compounds, sodium hydroxide (lye) is used in soap manufacture, and sodium chloride (edible salt) is a de-icing agent and a nutrient for animals including h ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Creatinine
Creatinine (; ) is a breakdown product of creatine phosphate from muscle and protein metabolism. It is released at a constant rate by the body (depending on muscle mass). Biological relevance Serum creatinine (a blood measurement) is an important indicator of kidney health, because it is an easily measured byproduct of muscle metabolism that is excreted unchanged by the kidneys. Creatinine itself is produced via a biological system involving creatine, phosphocreatine (also known as creatine phosphate), and adenosine triphosphate (ATP, the body's immediate energy supply). Creatine is synthesized primarily in the liver from the methylation of glycocyamine (guanidino acetate, synthesized in the kidney from the amino acids arginine and glycine) by S-Adenosyl methionine. It is then transported through blood to the other organs, muscle, and brain, where, through phosphorylation, it becomes the high-energy compound phosphocreatine. Creatine conversion to phosphocreatine is catalyzed b ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Kidney
The kidneys are two reddish-brown bean-shaped organs found in vertebrates. They are located on the left and right in the retroperitoneal space, and in adult humans are about in length. They receive blood from the paired renal arteries; blood exits into the paired renal veins. Each kidney is attached to a ureter, a tube that carries excreted urine to the bladder. The kidney participates in the control of the volume of various body fluids, fluid osmolality, acid–base balance, various electrolyte concentrations, and removal of toxins. Filtration occurs in the glomerulus: one-fifth of the blood volume that enters the kidneys is filtered. Examples of substances reabsorbed are solute-free water, sodium, bicarbonate, glucose, and amino acids. Examples of substances secreted are hydrogen, ammonium, potassium and uric acid. The nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney. Each adult human kidney contains around 1 million nephrons, while a mouse kidney contains on ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Inulin
Inulins are a group of naturally occurring polysaccharides produced by many types of plants, industrially most often extracted from chicory. The inulins belong to a class of dietary fibers known as fructans. Inulin is used by some plants as a means of storing energy and is typically found in roots or rhizomes. Most plants that synthesize and store inulin do not store other forms of carbohydrate such as starch. In the United States in 2018, the Food and Drug Administration approved inulin as a dietary fiber ingredient used to improve the nutritional value of manufactured food products. Using inulin to measure kidney function is the "gold standard" for comparison with other means of estimating glomerular filtration rate. Origin and history Inulin is a natural storage carbohydrate present in more than 36,000 species of plants, including agave, wheat, onion, bananas, garlic, asparagus, Jerusalem artichoke, and chicory. For these plants, inulin is used as an energy reserve and for r ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Renal Extraction Ratio
Effective renal plasma flow (eRPF) is a measure used in renal physiology to calculate renal plasma flow (RPF) and hence estimate renal function. Because the extraction ratio of PAH is high, it has become commonplace to estimate the RPF by dividing the amount of PAH in the urine by the plasma PAH level, ignoring the level in renal venous blood. The value obtained in this way is called the effective renal plasma flow (eRPF) to indicate that the level in renal venous plasma was not measured. The actual RPF can be calculated from eRPF as follows: : \text = \frac where extraction ratio is the ratio of compound entering the kidney that is excreted into the final urine. When using a compound with an extraction ratio near 1, such as para-aminohippurate (PAH), eRPF approximates RPF. Therefore, PAH clearance Para-aminohippurate (PAH) clearance is a method used in renal physiology to measure renal plasma flow, which is a measure of renal function. PAH is completely removed from blood ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
