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Mutatio
In the Roman Empire, a ''mansio'' (from the Latin word ''mansus,'' the perfect passive participle of ''manere'' "to remain" or "to stay") was an official stopping place on a Roman road, or ''via'', maintained by the central government for the use of officials and those on official business whilst travelling. Background The roads which traversed the Ancient World were later surveyed, developed and carefully maintained by the Romans, featuring purpose-built rest stops at regular intervals, known as '' castra''. Probably originally established as simple places of military encampment, in process of time they included barracks and magazines of provisions (''horrea'') for the troops. Over time the need arose for a more sophisticated form of shelter for travelling dignitaries and officials. The Latin term ''mansio'' is derived from ''manere'', signifying to pass the night at a place while travelling. (The word is likely to be the source of the English word mansion, though their uses a ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Kastell Eining 4
The Cittadella ( mt, Iċ-Ċittadella), also known as the Castello ( mt, Il-Kastell), is the citadel of Victoria on the island of Gozo, Malta. The area has been inhabited since the Bronze Age, and the site now occupied by the Cittadella is believed to have been the acropolis of the Punic-Roman city of ''Gaulos'' or ''Glauconis Civitas''. During the medieval period, the acropolis was converted into a castle which served as a refuge for Gozo's population. A suburb began to develop outside its walls by the 15th century, and this area now forms the historic core of Victoria. The castle's defences were obsolete by the 16th century, and in 1551 an Ottoman force invaded Gozo and sacked the Cittadella. A major reconstruction of the southern walls of the Cittadella was undertaken between 1599 and 1622, transforming it into a gunpowder fortress. The northern walls were left intact, and today they still retain a largely medieval form. The new fortifications were criticized in later de ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Civitates
In Ancient Rome, the Latin term (; plural ), according to Cicero in the time of the late Roman Republic, was the social body of the , or citizens, united by law (). It is the law that binds them together, giving them responsibilities () on the one hand and rights of citizenship on the other. The agreement () has a life of its own, creating a or "public entity" (synonymous with ), into which individuals are born or accepted, and from which they die or are ejected. The is not just the collective body of all the citizens, it is the contract binding them all together, because each of them is a . is an abstract formed from . Claude Nicolet traces the first word and concept for the citizen at Rome to the first known instance resulting from the synoecism of Romans and Sabines presented in the legends of the Roman Kingdom. According to Livy, the two peoples participated in a ceremony of union after which they were named Quirites after the Sabine town of Cures. The two groups becam ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Athanasius
Athanasius I of Alexandria, ; cop, ⲡⲓⲁⲅⲓⲟⲥ ⲁⲑⲁⲛⲁⲥⲓⲟⲩ ⲡⲓⲁⲡⲟⲥⲧⲟⲗⲓⲕⲟⲥ or Ⲡⲁⲡⲁ ⲁⲑⲁⲛⲁⲥⲓⲟⲩ ⲁ̅; (c. 296–298 – 2 May 373), also called Athanasius the Great, Athanasius the Confessor, or, among Coptic Christians, Athanasius the Apostolic, was a Coptic church father and the 20th pope of Alexandria (as Athanasius I). His intermittent episcopacy spanned 45 years (c. 8 June 328 – 2 May 373), of which over 17 encompassed five exiles, when he was replaced on the order of four different Roman emperors. Athanasius was a Christian theologian, a Church Father, the chief defender of Trinitarianism against Arianism, and a noted Egyptian Christian leader of the fourth century. Conflict with Arius and Arianism, as well as with successive Roman emperors, shaped Athanasius' career. In 325, at age 27, Athanasius began his leading role against the Arians as a deacon and assistant to Bishop Alexander of Alex ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Joseph Bingham
Joseph Bingham (September 1668 – 17 August 1723) was an English scholar and divine, who wrote on ecclesiastical history. Life He was born at Wakefield in Yorkshire. He was educated at Wakefield Grammar School and University College, Oxford, of which he was made fellow in 1689 and tutor in 1691. A sermon preached by him from the university pulpit in St Mary's church, on the meaning of the terms ''Person and Substance in the Fathers'', brought upon him an accusation of heresy. He was compelled to give up his fellowship and leave the university; but he was immediately presented by Dr John Radcliffe to the rectory of Headbourne Worthy, near Winchester (1695). In this country retirement he began his extensive work entitled ''Origines Ecclesiasticae, or Antiquities of the Christian Church'', the first volume of which appeared in 1708 and the tenth and last in 1722. His design, learnedly, exhaustively and impartially executed, was to give such a methodical account of the an ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Henri Justel
Henri Justel (1619–1693) was a French scholar and royal administrator, and also a bibliophile and librarian. He is known also as Henry Justel and Henricus Justellus. He was son of the scholar Christophe Justel. He acted as a secretary to Louis XIV. A Huguenot, he left France in 1681, just ahead of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, aware in advance of its implications for him. He emigrated to England, where he became a royal librarian at St. James's Palace, continuing to serve under William III. Networking As a well-connected intellectual and savant, he corresponded with John Locke, with Robert Boyle, Edmond Halley and Henry Oldenburg of the Royal Society, and with Gottfried Leibniz and Antoine Arnauld. He knew John Evelyn also, and appears in his ''Diary''. He knew Melchisédech Thévenot, the traveller and like-minded friend, and made a ''Recueil'' or collection of travels. He also ran a small 'academy', or intellectual club.This is mentioned ithis paper (PDF) by Dav ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
John Henry Newman
John Henry Newman (21 February 1801 – 11 August 1890) was an English theologian, academic, intellectual, philosopher, polymath, historian, writer, scholar and poet, first as an Anglican ministry, Anglican priest and later as a Catholic priest and Cardinal (Catholic Church), cardinal, who was an important and controversial figure in the religious history of England in the 19th century. He was known nationally by the mid-1830s, and Canonisation of John Henry Newman, was canonised as a saint in the Catholic Church in 2019. Originally an Evangelical Anglicanism, evangelical academic at the University of Oxford and priest in the Church of England, Newman became drawn to the high-church tradition of Anglicanism. He became one of the more notable leaders of the Oxford Movement, an influential and controversial grouping of Anglicans who wished to return to the Church of England many Catholicity, Catholic beliefs and liturgical rituals from before the English Reformation. In th ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Claude Fleury
Claude Fleury (6 December 1640, Paris – 14 July 1723, Paris), was a French priest, jurist, and ecclesiastical historian. Destined for the bar, he was educated at the elite, Jesuit College de Clermont (now that of Louis-le-Grand) in Paris. In 1658 he was accepted as an attorney to the '' parlement'' of Paris, and for nine years practiced law. There he caught the attention of preacher at the royal court, Bishop Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet, who persuaded him to study theology and receive holy orders. Under Bossuet's patronage, he attracted the attention of the king, Louis XIV, who appointed him the tutor of the princes of Conti in 1672 and soon thereafter of the count of Vermandois, one of the king's bastards. For his service Fleury was awarded the Cistercian abbey of Loc-Dieu, in the diocese of Rodez. Fleury's aristocratic teaching duties expanded in 1689 when he was appointed sub-preceptor of the dukes of Burgundy, of Anjou, and of Berry. He thus curried favor with Fénelon, ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Beadle
A beadle, sometimes spelled bedel, is an official of a church or synagogue who may usher, keep order, make reports, and assist in religious functions; or a minor official who carries out various civil, educational, or ceremonial duties on the manor. The term has pre-Conquest origins in Old English, deriving from the Old English ''bydel'' ("herald, messenger from an authority, preacher"), itself deriving from ''beodan'' ("to proclaim", which has a modern descendant in the English verb ''bid''). In Old English it was a title given to an Anglo-Saxon officer who summoned householders to council. It is also known in Medieval Latin as ''bedellus''. The Domesday Book refers to Beadles as ''bedelli'' or undersheriffs of manors. In religion In England, the word came to refer to a parish constable of the Anglican Church, one often charged with duties of charity. A famous fictional constabulary beadle is Mr. Bumble from Charles Dickens's classic novel '' Oliver Twist'', who overs ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Louis-Sébastien Le Nain De Tillemont
Louis-Sébastien Le Nain de Tillemont (30 November 163710 January 1698) was a French ecclesiastical historian. Life He was born in Paris into a wealthy Jansenist family, and was educated at the ''Petites écoles'' of Port-Royal, where his historical interests were formed and encouraged. At the age of twenty, he began his two monumental works, the ''Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire ecclésiastique des six premiers siècles'' and the ''Histoire des empereurs et autres princes qui ont régné pendant les six premiers siècles de l'Église''. The first is a history of the first six centuries of the Christian Church. The second is a history of the Roman emperors during the same period. Tillemont became a priest at the age of thirty-nine and settled at Port-Royal. When Port-Royal was dissolved in 1679, he moved to his family estate at Tillemont, where he spent the rest of his life, pursuing his historical work with great devotion. His ''Histoire'' began to issue from the press in 169 ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Gregory The Great
Pope Gregory I ( la, Gregorius I; – 12 March 604), commonly known as Saint Gregory the Great, was the bishop of Rome from 3 September 590 to his death. He is known for instigating the first recorded large-scale mission from Rome, the Gregorian mission, to convert the then largely pagan Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. Gregory is also well known for his writings, which were more prolific than those of any of his predecessors as pope. The epithet Saint Gregory the Dialogist has been attached to him in Eastern Christianity because of his ''Dialogues''. English translations of Eastern texts sometimes list him as Gregory "Dialogos", or the Anglo-Latinate equivalent "Dialogus". A Roman senator's son and himself the prefect of Rome at 30, Gregory lived in a monastery he established on his family estate before becoming a papal ambassador and then pope. Although he was the first pope from a monastic background, his prior political experiences may have helped him to be a talented administ ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Nicene And Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume XIV/The Fourth Ecumenical Council/Canons/Canon II
The original Nicene Creed (; grc-gre, Σύμβολον τῆς Νικαίας; la, Symbolum Nicaenum) was first adopted at the First Council of Nicaea in 325. In 381, it was amended at the First Council of Constantinople. The amended form is also referred to as the Nicene Creed, or the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed for disambiguation. The Nicene Creed is the defining statement of belief of Nicene or mainstream Christianity and in those Christian denominations that adhere to it. The Nicene Creed is part of the profession of faith required of those undertaking important functions within the Orthodox and Catholic Churches. Nicene Christianity regards Jesus as divine and "begotten of the Father". Various non-Nicene doctrines, beliefs, and creeds have been formed since the fourth century, all of which are considered heresies by adherents of Nicene Christianity. In Western Christianity, the Nicene Creed is in use alongside the less widespread Apostles' Creed. In musical setting ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Fourth Ecumenical Council
The Council of Chalcedon (; la, Concilium Chalcedonense), ''Synodos tēs Chalkēdonos'' was the fourth ecumenical council of the Christian Church. It was convoked by the Roman emperor Marcian. The council convened in the city of Chalcedon, Bithynia (modern-day Kadıköy, Istanbul, Turkey) from 8 October to 1 November 451 AD. The council was attended by over 520 bishops or their representatives, making it the largest and best-documented of the first seven ecumenical councils. The principal purpose of the council was to re-assert the teachings of the ecumenical Council of Ephesus against the heresies of Eutyches and Nestorius. Such heresies attempted to dismantle and separate Christ's divine nature from his humanity (Nestorianism) and further, to limit Christ as solely divine in nature (Monophysitism). Extended summary As recorded by American Christian scholar Jaroslav Pelikan, it was stated: Whilst this judgment marked a significant turning point in the Christological deb ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
