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Knowledge Level
In artificial intelligence, knowledge-based agents draw on a pool of logical sentences to infer conclusions about the world. At the knowledge level, we only need to specify what the agent knows and what its goals are; a logical abstraction separate from details of implementation. This notion of knowledge level was first introduced by Allen Newell in the 1980s, to have a way to rationalize an agent's behavior. The agent takes actions based on knowledge it possesses, in an attempt to reach specific goals. It chooses actions according to the principle of rationality. Beneath the knowledge level resides the symbol level. Whereas the knowledge level is ''world'' oriented, namely that it concerns the environment in which the agent operates, the symbol level is ''system'' oriented, in that it includes the mechanisms the agent has available to operate. The knowledge level ''rationalizes'' the agent's behavior, while the symbol level ''mechanizes'' the agent's behavior. For example, ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Artificial Intelligence
Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence—perceiving, synthesizing, and inferring information—demonstrated by machines, as opposed to intelligence displayed by animals and humans. Example tasks in which this is done include speech recognition, computer vision, translation between (natural) languages, as well as other mappings of inputs. The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' of Oxford University Press defines artificial intelligence as: the theory and development of computer systems able to perform tasks that normally require human intelligence, such as visual perception, speech recognition, decision-making, and translation between languages. AI applications include advanced web search engines (e.g., Google), recommendation systems (used by YouTube, Amazon and Netflix), understanding human speech (such as Siri and Alexa), self-driving cars (e.g., Tesla), automated decision-making and competing at the highest level in strategic game systems (such as chess and Go). ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
World
In its most general sense, the term "world" refers to the totality of entities, to the whole of reality or to everything that is. The nature of the world has been conceptualized differently in different fields. Some conceptions see the world as unique while others talk of a "plurality of worlds". Some treat the world as #Monism and pluralism, one simple object while others analyze the world as a complex made up of many parts. In ''#Scientific cosmology, scientific cosmology'' the world or universe is commonly defined as "[t]he totality of all space and time; all that is, has been, and will be". ''#Theories of modality, Theories of modality'', on the other hand, talk of possible worlds as complete and consistent ways how things could have been. ''#Phenomenology, Phenomenology'', starting from the horizon of co-given objects present in the periphery of every experience, defines the world as the biggest horizon or the "horizon of all horizons". In ''#Philosophy of mind, philosop ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Allen Newell
Allen Newell (March 19, 1927 – July 19, 1992) was a researcher in computer science and cognitive psychology at the RAND Corporation and at Carnegie Mellon University’s School of Computer Science, Tepper School of Business, and Department of Psychology. He contributed to the Information Processing Language (1956) and two of the earliest AI programs, the Logic Theory Machine (1956) and the General Problem Solver (1957) (with Herbert A. Simon). He was awarded the ACM's A.M. Turing Award along with Herbert A. Simon in 1975 for their basic contributions to artificial intelligence and the psychology of human cognition. Early studies Newell completed his Bachelor's degree in physics from Stanford in 1949. He was a graduate student at Princeton University from 1949–1950, where he did mathematics. Due to his early exposure to an unknown field known as game theory and the experiences from the study of mathematics, he was convinced that he would prefer a combination of exper ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Principle Of Rationality
The principle of rationality (or rationality principle) was coined by Karl R. Popper in his Harvard Lecture of 1963, and published in his book ''Myth of Framework''. It is related to what he called the 'logic of the situation' in an ''Economica'' article of 1944/1945, published later in his book ''The Poverty of Historicism''. According to Popper’s rationality principle, agents act in the most adequate way according to the objective situation. It is an idealized conception of human behavior which he used to drive his model of situational analysis. Popper Popper called for social science to be grounded in what he called situational analysis. This requires building models of social situations which include individual actors and their relationship to social institutions, e.g. markets, legal codes, bureaucracies, etc. These models attribute certain aims and information to the actors. This forms the 'logic of the situation', the result of reconstructing meticulously all circumstances o ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Symbol Level
In knowledge-based systems, agents choose actions based on the principle of rationality to move closer to a desired goal. The agent is able to make decisions based on knowledge it has about the world (see knowledge level). But for the agent to actually change its state, it must use whatever means it has available. This level of description for the agent's behavior is the symbol level. The term was coined by Allen Newell in 1982. For example, in a computer program, the knowledge level consists of the information contained in its data structures that it uses to perform certain actions. The symbol level consists of the program's algorithms, the data structures themselves, and so on. See also *Knowledge level modeling References {{DEFAULTSORT:Symbol Level Artificial intelligence ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Knowledge Level Modeling
Knowledge level modeling is the process of theorizing over observations about a world and, to some extent, explaining the behavior of an agent as it interacts with its environment. Crucial to the understanding of knowledge level modeling are Allen Newell's notions of the knowledge level, ''operators'', and an agent's ''goal state''. *The ''knowledge level'' refers to the knowledge an agent has about its world. *''Operators'' are what can be applied to an agent to affect its state. *An agent's ''goal state'' is the status reached after the appropriate operators have been applied to transition from a previous, non-goal state. Essentially, knowledge level modeling involves evaluating an agent's knowledge of the world and all possible states and with that information constructing a model that depicts the interrelations and pathways between the various states. With this model, various problem solving methods (i.e. prediction, classification, explanation, tutoring, qualitative reasoni ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Knowledge Relativity
Factual relativism (also called epistemic relativism, epistemological relativism, alethic relativism or cognitive relativism) argues that truth itself is relative. This form of relativism has its own particular problem, regardless of whether one is talking about truth being relative to the individual, the position or purpose of the individual, or the conceptual scheme within which the truth was revealed. This problem centers on what Maurice Mandelbaum in 1962 termed the "self-excepting fallacy." Largely because of the self-excepting fallacy, few authors in the philosophy of science currently accept alethic cognitive relativism. Factual relativism is a way to reason where facts used to justify any claims are understood to be relative and subjective to the perspective of those proving or falsifying the proposition. Viewpoints One school of thought compares scientific knowledge to the mythology of other cultures, arguing that it is merely our society's set of myths based on soc ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
