Khorezm Fortresses
The Khorezm Fortresses, or Elliq Qala in Uzbek, are a collection of more than 50 desert fortresses in Karakalpakstan and the Khorezm Region of Uzbekistan. They are included on UNESCO’s Tentative List for World Heritage Site status as the Desert Castles of Ancient Khorezm. Geography The Khorezm Oasis is an area of the Amu Darya river delta in western Central Asia. It is bordered to the north by the Aral Sea, to the east by the Kyzylkum Desert, and the south by the Karakum Desert. To the west is the Ustyurt Plateau. Today, the region is divided between Uzbekistan (including the autonomous Republic of Karakalpakstan) and Turkmenistan. History Khorezm has been occupied by humans since Paleolithic times. The first fortified sites date from the 7th century BC, and the number and size of the fortresses increased from the 6th to  4th centuries BC once Khorezm became a vassal state of the Achaemenid Empire. Khorezm became an independent state between the 4th century BC and the 1s ...
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Kyzyl-Kala
Kyzyl-Kala, also Qyzyl Qala ("Red fortress"), in modern Karakalpakstan, Uzbekistan, was an ancient fortress in Chorasmia built in the 1st-4th century CE. The small fortress of Kyzyl-Kala is located near Toprak-Kala, about 1 km to the west, and was also built in the 1st-4th century CE, possibly as a fortified defense for the site of Toprak-Kala. Kyzyl-Kala was once restored in the 12th century CE. It has also been the subject of a modern renovation program, with the objective of showing what a fortress looked like originally. It is part of the "Fifty fortresses oasis" in modern-day Uzbekistan. It was last occupied by Muhammad II of Khwarazm (1169, 1200-20), before it fell to the Mongol conquest of the Khwarazmian Empire. Kyzyl-Kala under restoration (cropped).jpg, Kyzyl-Kala under restoration (2018) File:Karakalpakstan Kyzyl Qala (Red Fortress) Fortified Residence 1st-2nd cent CE - 4th cent CE & restored 12th cent CE (4).jpg, Old and new walls File:Karakalpakstan Kyzyl Qala (Red Fo ...
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Arrian
Arrian of Nicomedia (; Greek: ''Arrianos''; la, Lucius Flavius Arrianus; ) was a Greek historian, public servant, military commander and philosopher of the Roman period. ''The Anabasis of Alexander'' by Arrian is considered the best source on the campaigns of Alexander the Great. Scholars have generally preferred Arrian to other extant primary sources; though this attitude is beginning to change in light of modern studies into Arrian's method. Arrian's life Arrian was born in Nicomedia (present-day İzmit), the provincial capital of Bithynia. Cassius Dio called him Flavius Arrianus Nicomediensis. In respect of his birth date, sources provide similar dates for his birth; within a few years prior to 90, 89, and 85–90 AD. The line of reasoning for dates belonging to 85–90 AD is from the fact of Arrian being made a consul around 130 AD, and the usual age for this, during this period, being forty-two years of age. (ref. pp. 312, & SYME 1958, ''same page''). Hi ...
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Guldursun-Kala
Guldursun-Kala, also Guldursun Qala, in modern Karakalpakstan, Uzbekistan, was an ancient fortress in Chorasmia built in the 12th century CE. It is one of the largest fortresses of Khwarezm, with perimeter walls of about 1 kilometer in total length, and an internal area of about 6.4 hectares (64,000 square meters, or 15.8 acres). It is part of the "Fifty fortresses oasis" in modern-day Uzbekistan. It was last occupied by Muhammad II of Khwarazm (1169, 1200-20), before it fell to the Mongol conquest of the Khwarazmian Empire. File:Guldursun Qala panorama.jpg, Interior panorama of Guldursun-Kala Local kids gather atop the ancient fortifications of Guldursun Qala.jpg, Arrow-shaped arrowslit and merlons, walls of Guldursun-Kala File:Chorasmian oasis main fortresses.jpg, Location of the Guldursun-Kala fortress in the Chorasmia Khwarazm (; Old Persian: ''Hwârazmiya''; fa, خوارزم, ''Xwârazm'' or ''Xârazm'') or Chorasmia () is a large oasis region on the Amu Darya river ...
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Ayaz-Kala
Ayaz-Kala is an archaeological site in Northern Uzbekistan, built between the 4th century BCE and the 7th century CE. Situated on a hilltop overlooking the Kyzylkum Desert, the site encompasses the ruins of an ancient Khorezm fortress. History The site consists of three fortresses which were built from the 4th century BCE to the 7th century CE. The fortresses were part of a series of forts at the edge of the Kyzylkum Desert, which provided defence against raids by nomads and the Saka of the Syr Darya delta. Part of Ayaz Kala was built in the second century by the Kushan Empire. The now-ruined fortress is speculated to have been built as part of a chain of border fortresses guarding the borders of the Kyzylkum Desert. In addition to the eroded remains of defensive works, the remnants of several residential structures have been uncovered at site. Ayaz Kala 1 Ayaz Kala 1 is a fortress dating back to end of the 4th or beginning of the 3rd century BCE. In this time Khorezm had bec ...
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Toprak-Kala
Toprak-Kala, in modern Karakalpakstan, Uzbekistan, was an ancient palace city and the capital of in Chorasmia in the 2nd/3rd century CE, where wall paintings, coins and archives were discovered. Its history covers a period from the 1st to the 5th century CE. It is part of the "Fifty fortresses oasis" in modern-day Uzbekistan. Toprak-Kala palace city Toprak-Kala appears to have been built by Artav (Artabanos), ruler of Khwarezm, in the 1st or 2nd century CE. The establishment of Toprak-Kala probably followed the abandonment of Akchakhan-Kala, 14 km to the southwest. The ruins of the city were explored by the Chorasmian Expedition under the guidance of Sergey Tolstov in 1938. The date of the palace has been determined by the discovery of coins of the Kushan Empire rulers Vima Kadphises and Kanishka, as well as coins of the Khwarazmian king Artav (Artabanus). Wall paintings representing Zoroastrian deities were discovered in the Palace. Toprak-kala and the whole of Chorasmia ...
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Akchakhan-Kala
Akchakhan-Kala, or Akcha-khan Kala, also named after the locality Kazakly-Yatkan/ Kazakl'i-Yatkan, in modern Karakalpakstan, Uzbekistan, was an ancient fortress in Chorasmia built in the 4th/ 3rd century BCE and occupied until it was despoiled in the 2nd century CE. It is part of the "Fifty fortresses oasis" in modern-day Uzbekistan. The abandonment of Akchakhan-Kala was apparently followed by the establishment of the new capital of Toprak-Kala, 14 km to the northeast. Excavations Akcha-khan Kala has been the object of numerous excavations, still ongoing. A ceremonial complex with a hypostyle hall was discovered. File:Corner of upper enclosure of Kazakl'i-yatkan.jpg, Corner of upper enclosure of Kazakl'i-yatkan File:Kazakl'i-yatkan.jpg, Kazakl'i-yatkan File:Column base at Kazakl'i-yatkan.jpg, Column base at Kazakl'i-yatkan File:Mud brick floor at Kazakl'i-yatkan.jpg, Mud brick floor at Kazakl'i-yatkan Paintings Many decorations have been found, belonging to the period from the ...
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Ayaz Qala, Uzbekistan
Ayaz may refer to: * Ayaz (name), a given name and surname *Ayaz, East Azerbaijan, Iran *Ayask or Ayāz, a city in Iran *Ayaz, Mustafakemalpaşa, Turkey *Ayaz, Yenişehir, Turkey *Ayaz, Çorum Ayaz is a village in the Çorum District of Çorum Province Çorum ( tr, ) is a province in the Black Sea Region of Turkey, but lying inland and having more characteristics of Central Anatolia than the Black Sea coast. Its provincial capital ...

Ayaz Qala 1
Ayaz may refer to: * Ayaz (name), a given name and surname *Ayaz, East Azerbaijan, Iran *Ayask or Ayāz, a city in Iran *Ayaz, Mustafakemalpaşa, Turkey *Ayaz, Yenişehir, Turkey *Ayaz, Çorum Ayaz is a village in the Çorum District of Çorum Province Çorum ( tr, ) is a province in the Black Sea Region of Turkey, but lying inland and having more characteristics of Central Anatolia than the Black Sea coast. Its provincial capital ...

Afrighids
The Afrighids ( Khwarazmian: ''ʾfryḡ'') were a native Khwarezmian IranianClifford Edmund Bosworth, The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual, Columbia University, 1996. dynasty who ruled over the ancient kingdom of Khwarezm. Over time, they were under the suzerainty of the Sasanian Empire, the Hephthalite Empire, the Göktürk Khaganate, the Umayyad Caliphate, Abbasid Caliphate and the Samanid Empire. They were ultimately deposed by a rival family, the Ma'munids of Gurganj, who became the new rulers of Khwarazm. Sources Al-Biruni, the native Khwarezmian scholar, mentions twenty-two members of the Afrighid dynasty for a total span of 690 years with an average rule of 31 years for each ruler. According to him, the Afrighids ruled from 305, through the Arab conquests under Qutayba ibn Muslim in 712, and up to their overthrow in 995 by the rising rival family of Ma'munids. The main source on the Afrighids prior to Islam is also Al-Biruni. Part of the re ...
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Huns
The Huns were a nomadic people who lived in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe between the 4th and 6th century AD. According to European tradition, they were first reported living east of the Volga River, in an area that was part of Scythia at the time; the Huns' arrival is associated with the migration westward of an Iranian people, the Alans. By 370 AD, the Huns had arrived on the Volga, and by 430, they had established a vast, if short-lived, dominion in Europe, conquering the Goths and many other Germanic peoples living outside of Roman borders and causing many others to flee into Roman territory. The Huns, especially under their King Attila, made frequent and devastating raids into the Eastern Roman Empire. In 451, they invaded the Western Roman province of Gaul, where they fought a combined army of Romans and Visigoths at the Battle of the Catalaunian Fields, and in 452, they invaded Italy. After the death of Attila in 453, the Huns ceased to be a major thr ...
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