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Huelga Schools (Houston)
Huelga, "strike" or "freedom" schools were alternative schools set up in Houston in order to continue the education of boycotting Mexican-American students between 1970 and 1972. The schools were coordinated by Sister Gloria Gallardo and Tina Reyes. Curriculum for the schools was developed by committee with professor Edward Gonzáles acting as the head. Students learned basic skills such as reading and writing as well as history and culture. Background The Houston Independent School District (HISD) in the late 1960s and early 1970s refused to consider Chicano students as a minority for the purposes of desegregating schools. The Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund (MALDEF) opened a case against HISD, alleging that the district was illegally segregating black and Chicano students from white students. In addition, a group called the Mexican American Education Council (MAEC) was formed to coordinate efforts to protest school segregation. Some people were critical o ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Houston
Houston (; ) is the most populous city in Texas, the most populous city in the Southern United States, the fourth-most populous city in the United States, and the sixth-most populous city in North America, with a population of 2,304,580 in 2020. Located in Southeast Texas near Galveston Bay and the Gulf of Mexico, it is the seat and largest city of Harris County and the principal city of the Greater Houston metropolitan area, which is the fifth-most populous metropolitan statistical area in the United States and the second-most populous in Texas after Dallas–Fort Worth. Houston is the southeast anchor of the greater megaregion known as the Texas Triangle. Comprising a land area of , Houston is the ninth-most expansive city in the United States (including consolidated city-counties). It is the largest city in the United States by total area whose government is not consolidated with a county, parish, or borough. Though primarily in Harris County, small portions of the ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Mexican Americans
Mexican Americans ( es, mexicano-estadounidenses, , or ) are Americans of full or partial Mexican heritage. In 2019, Mexican Americans comprised 11.3% of the US population and 61.5% of all Hispanic and Latino Americans. In 2019, 71% of Mexican Americans were born in the United States, though they make up 53% of the total population of foreign-born Latino Americans and 25% of the total foreign-born population. The United States is home to the second-largest Mexican community in the world (24% of the entire Mexican-origin population of the world), behind only Mexico. Most Mexican Americans reside in the Southwest (over 60% in the states of California and Texas). Many Mexican Americans living in the United States have assimilated into American culture which has made some become less connected with their culture of birth (or of their parents/ grandparents) and sometimes creates an identity crisis. Most Mexican Americans have varying degrees of Indigenous and European ancestry, ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Gloria Gallardo
Gloria Graciela Gallardo (October 16, 1938 - February 14, 2012) was a Chicana activist and former religious sister. She is best known for her involvement in the 1970 student boycotts in Houston, coordinating the huelga schools and for co-founding Las Hermanas. Biography Gallardo was born in San Antonio. She became a member of the Sisters of the Holy Ghost. After taking vows, Gallardo began to work what was considered a "rough" part of town, Alazán-Apache Courts in San Antonio. She worked for several years in barrios in San Antonio. In 1969, she was asked to come to Houston to work as the interim director of the Mexican American Education Council (MAEC). In this capacity, she helped support student boycotts against unfair policies, protested and spoke publicly for MAEC. Gallardo was a leader in the Mexican American boycott of the Houston public schools in the early 1970s. In September 1970, she set up special schools, called strike or huelga schools, for students to get ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Curriculum
In education, a curriculum (; : curricula or curriculums) is broadly defined as the totality of student experiences that occur in the educational process. The term often refers specifically to a planned sequence of instruction, or to a view of the student's experiences in terms of the educator's or school's instructional goals. A curriculum may incorporate the planned interaction of pupils with instructional content, materials, resources, and processes for evaluating the attainment of educational objectives. Curricula are split into several categories: the explicit, the implicit (including the hidden), the excluded, and the extracurricular.Kelly, A. V. (2009). The curriculum: Theory and practice (pp. 1–55). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Braslavsky, C. (2003). The curriculum. Curricula may be tightly standardized or may include a high level of instructor or learner autonomy. Many countries have national curricula in primary and secondary education, such as the United Kingdom's Na ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Houston Independent School District
The Houston Independent School District (HISD) is the largest public school system in Texas, and the eighth-largest in the United States. Houston ISD serves as a community school district for most of the city of Houston and several nearby and insular municipalities in addition to some unincorporated areas. Like most districts in Texas it is independent of the city of Houston and all other municipal and county jurisdictions. The district has its headquarters in the Hattie Mae White Educational Support Center in Houston. In 2016, the school district was rated "met standards" by the Texas Education Agency. History 20th century The Brunner Independent School District merged into Houston schools in 1913-1914. Houston ISD was established in 1923 after the Texas Legislature voted to separate the city's schools from the municipal government. In the 1920s, at the time Edison Oberholtzer was superintendent, Hubert L. Mills, the business manager of the district, had immense politic ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Chicano
Chicano or Chicana is a chosen identity for many Mexican Americans in the United States. The label ''Chicano'' is sometimes used interchangeably with ''Mexican American'', although the terms have different meanings. While Mexican-American identity was related to encouraging assimilation into White American society and separating the community from the African-American political struggle, Chicano identity emerged among anti-assimilationist youth. Some belonged to the Pachuco subculture, and claimed the term (which had previously been a classist and racist slur). The term ''Chicano'' was widely reclaimed by ethnic Mexicans in the 1960s and 1970s to express political empowerment, ethnic solidarity, and pride in being of Indigenous descent (with many using the Nahuatl language), diverging from the more assimilationist ''Mexican American'' term. Chicano Movement leaders collaborated with Black Power movement. Chicano youth in ''barrios'' rejected cultural assimilation into whit ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Desegregation
Desegregation is the process of ending the separation of two groups, usually referring to races. Desegregation is typically measured by the index of dissimilarity, allowing researchers to determine whether desegregation efforts are having impact on the settlement patterns of various groups. This is most commonly used in reference to the United States. Desegregation was long a focus of the American civil rights movement, both before and after the United States Supreme Court's decision in ''Brown v. Board of Education'', particularly desegregation of the school systems and the military (''see Military history of African Americans''). Racial integration of society was a closely related goal. US military Early history Starting with King Philip's War in the 17th century, Black and White Americans served together in an integrated environment in the Thirteen Colonies. They continued to fight alongside each other in every American war until the war of 1812. Black people would not fight i ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Mexican American Legal Defense And Educational Fund
The Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund (MALDEF) is a national non-profit civil rights organization formed in 1968 by Jack Greenberg to protect the rights of Latinos in the United States."MALDEF" entry in ''Los Angeles A to Z: An Encyclopedia of the City and County'', by Leonard and Dale Pitt, published by UC Press in 1997. Founded in San Antonio, Texas, it is currently headquartered in Los Angeles, California and maintains regional offices in Sacramento, San Antonio, Chicago, and Washington, D.C. Background MALDEF was founded in San Antonio in 1968 under the direction of Jack Greenberg. With the help of the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) and the NAACP Legal Defense Fund (LDF), MALDEF got a $2.2 million grant from the Ford Foundation. The grant provided scholarships for more Mexican-American lawyers. In its first three years, MALDEF handled mostly legal-aid cases. Then MALDEF took part in employment discrimination and school funding cases with L ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Mexican-American Education Council
The Mexican-American Educational Council (MAEC) was a post Chicano-movement non-profit organization in the Houston, Texas area. Its principal goal was to achieve equitable access to public education for Mexican Americans in Texas. History In late 1970, MAEC organized boycotts and walkouts of schools within the Houston Independent School District (HISD) in protest against the district's racist integration orders. In protest, MAEC established "huelga" schools where Mexican American children could attend school while the concerns were resolved. More than 3,500 students participated in the protests. MAEC was formed in the summer of 1970. MAEC was headed by Leonel Castillo and an activist nun, Sister Gloria Gallardo, served as interim director for a while. On August 25, 1970, Castillo spoke at a hastily-planned press conference, explaining the position of MAEC. On August 31, 1970 MAEC began aggressive boycotts, protests, and picketing. These actions lasted approximately three we ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Racism
Racism is the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to inherited attributes and can be divided based on the superiority of one race over another. It may also mean prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against other people because they are of a different race or ethnicity. Modern variants of racism are often based in social perceptions of biological differences between peoples. These views can take the form of social actions, practices or beliefs, or political systems in which different races are ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities. There have been attempts to legitimize racist beliefs through scientific means, such as scientific racism, which have been overwhelmingly shown to be unfounded. In terms of political systems (e.g. apartheid) that support the expression of prejudice or aversion in discriminatory practices or laws, racist ideology ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
African Americans
African Americans (also referred to as Black Americans and Afro-Americans) are an ethnic group consisting of Americans with partial or total ancestry from sub-Saharan Africa. The term "African American" generally denotes descendants of enslaved Africans who are from the United States. While some Black immigrants or their children may also come to identify as African-American, the majority of first generation immigrants do not, preferring to identify with their nation of origin. African Americans constitute the second largest racial group in the U.S. after White Americans, as well as the third largest ethnic group after Hispanic and Latino Americans. Most African Americans are descendants of enslaved people within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of West/ Central African with some European descent; some also have Native American and other ancestry. According to U.S. Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not se ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Mexican American Youth Organization
The Mexican American Youth Organization (acronym MAYO, also described as the Mexican Youth Organization) is a civil rights organization formed in 1967 in San Antonio, Texas, USA to fight for Mexican-American rights. The creators of MAYO, Los Cinco (meaning "the five"), consisted of José Ángel Gutiérrez, Willie Velásquez, Mario Compean, Ignacio Pérez, and Juan Patlán. MAYO and its political organization, Raza Unida Party, played an important part in Texas history during the late 1960s and early 1970s. They were a part of the larger Chicano movement in the United States, and played a role in bringing about civil rights for Mexican-Americans. Formation “The organization was born in March 1967 in San Antonio, where Méxicanos, who constituted some 40 percent of the population, were powerless and impoverished. It was the brain child of five young Chicano student activists-José Ángel Gutiérrez, Mario Compean, William “Willie” Velasquez, Ignacio Perez, and Juan Patla ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
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