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18th Century Glassmaking In The United States
18th century glassmaking in the United States began before the country existed. During the previous century, several attempts were made to produce glass, but none were long-lived. By 1700, it is thought that little or no glass was being produced in the Thirteen Colonies, British colonies that would eventually become the United States. The first American glass factory operated with long–term success was started by Caspar Wistar (glassmaker), Caspar Wistar in 1745—although two glass works in New Amsterdam that operated in the previous century deserve honorable mention. Wistar's glass works was located in the English colony known as the Province of New Jersey. In the southeastern portion of the Province of Pennsylvania, Henry William Stiegel, Henry Stiegel was the first American producer of high–quality glassware known as lead glass, crystal. Stiegel's first glass works began in 1763, and his better quality glassmaking began in 1769. In the United States, the first use of coal a ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Salt MET DP105070
Salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl), a chemical compound belonging to the larger class of salts; salt in the form of a natural crystalline mineral is known as rock salt or halite. Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater. The open ocean has about of solids per liter of sea water, a salinity of 3.5%. Salt is essential for life in general, and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes. Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous food seasonings, and is known to uniformly improve the taste perception of food, including otherwise unpalatable food. Salting, brining, and pickling are also ancient and important methods of food preservation. Some of the earliest evidence of salt processing dates to around 6,000 BC, when people living in the area of present-day Romania boiled spring water to extract salts; a salt-works in China dates to approximately the same period. Salt was also prized by the ancient Hebrews, Greeks, Romans, B ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Glass Recycling
Glass recycling is the processing of waste glass into usable products. Glass that is crushed or imploded and ready to be remelted is called cullet. There are two types of cullet: internal and external. Internal cullet is composed of defective products detected and rejected by a quality control process during the industrial process of glass manufacturing, transition phases of product changes (such as thickness and color changes) and production offcuts. External cullet is waste glass that has been collected or reprocessed with the purpose of recycling. External cullet (which can be pre- or post-consumer) is classified as waste. The word "cullet", when used in the context of end-of-waste, will always refer to external cullet. To be recycled, glass waste needs to be purified and cleaned of contamination. Then, depending on the end use and local processing capabilities, it might also have to be separated into different sizes and colours. Many recyclers collect different colors of g ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Cylinder Blown Sheet Glass
Cylinder blown sheet is a type of hand-glassblowing, blown window glass. It is created with a similar process to broad sheet, but with the use of larger cylinders. In this manufacturing process glass is blown into a cylindrical iron mold. The ends are cut off and a cut is made down the side of the cylinder. The cut cylinder is then placed in an oven where the cylinder unrolls into a flat glass sheet. Blenko Glass Company, William J. Blenko used this method in the early 1900s to make stained glass. The result is much larger panes and improved surface quality over broad sheet, although still containing some imperfections. These imperfect panes have led to the misconception that glass is actually a high-viscosity fluid at room temperature, which is not the case. This method caused surface damages on the glass due to the flattening and moving, and the sheet therefore had to be ground and polished. In 1839 the Chance Brothers invented the patent plate process where the glass plate was pla ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Crown Glass (window)
Crown glass was an early type of window glass. In this process, glass was blown into a "crown" or hollow globe. This was then transferred from the blowpipe to a punty and then flattened by reheating and spinning out the bowl-shaped piece of glass (bullion) into a flat disk by centrifugal force, up to 5 or 6 feet (1.5 to 1.8 metres) in diameter. The glass was then cut to the size required. The thinnest glass was in a band at the edge of the disk, with the glass becoming thicker and more opaque toward the center. Known as a bullseye, the thicker center area around the pontil mark was used for less expensive windows. To fill large window spaces with the best glass, many small diamond shapes were cut from the edge of the disk, and then some might be halved into triangles. These were mounted in a lead lattice work and fitted into the window frame. Crown glass was one of the two most common processes for making window glass until the 19th century. The other was blown plate. Crown ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Mambourg Glass Company
Mambourg Glass Company was a window glass manufacturer that began production on October 26, 1887. The company was the first of thirteen glass manufacturers located in Fostoria, Ohio, in the United States, during northwest Ohio's gas boom. The plant was managed by Leopold Mambourg, a Belgian immigrant and experienced glassmaker. Much of the company's work force was also from Belgium. Former Ohio governor Charles Foster (Ohio politician), Charles Foster was president of the company and a major financial backer. He was also a major investor in other businesses and two additional Fostoria window glass companies: the Calcine Glass Company and the Crocker Glass Company. Mambourg was the chief operating officer for all three of Foster's window glass companies. The startup for Mambourg Glass Company went well, and the company was busy producing high quality window glass. A capacity expansion was finished in January 1890. The company continued to hire glassworkers from Belgium to meet its ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Lead(II,IV) Oxide
Lead(II,IV) oxide, also called red lead or minium, is the inorganic compound with the formula Pb3O4. A bright red or orange solid, it is used as pigment, in the manufacture of batteries, and rustproof primer paints. It is an example of a mixed valence compound, being composed of both Pb(II) and Pb(IV) in the ratio of two to one. Structure Lead(II,IV) oxide has a tetragonal crystal structure at room temperature, which then transforms to an orthorhombic ( Pearson symbol ''oP''28, Space group Pbam, No. 55) form at temperature . This phase transition only changes the symmetry of the crystal and slightly modifies the interatomic distances and angles. File:Red-lead-unit-cell-3D-balls.png, Unit cell of tetragonal Pb3O4(Key: Pb O) File:Red-lead-3D-balls.png, Part of tetragonal red lead's crystal structure Preparation Lead(II,IV) oxide is prepared by calcination of lead(II) oxide (PbO; also called litharge) in air at about 450–480 °C: :6 PbO + O2 -> 2 Pb3O4 The res ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Lead Glass
Lead glass, commonly called crystal, is a variety of glass in which lead replaces the calcium content of a typical potash glass. Lead glass contains typically 18–40% (by weight) lead(II) oxide (PbO), while modern lead crystal, historically also known as flint glass due to the original silica source, contains a minimum of 24% PbO. Lead glass is often desirable for a variety of uses due to its clarity. The term ''lead crystal'' is, technically, not an accurate term to describe lead glass, because glass lacks a crystalline structure and is instead an amorphous solid. The use of the term ''lead crystal'' or just "crystal" remains popular for historical and commercial reasons, and because "lead" sounds toxic to consumers. It is retained from the Venetian word ''cristallo'' to describe the rock crystal imitated by Murano glassmakers. This naming convention has been maintained to the present day to describe decorative hollow-ware. Lead crystal glassware was formerly used to store a ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Lehr (glassmaking)
In the manufacture of float glass, a lehr oven is a long kiln with an end-to-end temperature gradient, which is used for annealing newly made glass objects that are transported through the temperature gradient either on rollers or on a conveyor belt. The annealing renders glass into a stronger material with fewer internal stresses, and with a lower probability of breaking. The rapid cooling of molten glass results in an uneven temperature distribution throughout the material. This temperature differential results in mechanical stresses throughout the molten glass, which may be sufficient to cause the material to crack as it cools to ambient temperature or to make it susceptible to cracking during later use, either spontaneously or due to mechanical or thermal shock. To prevent such material weaknesses, objects made from molten glass are annealed by gradual cooling in a lehr oven, from the annealing point, a temperature just below the solidification temperature of the glass. In t ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Kiln
A kiln is a thermally insulated chamber, a type of oven, that produces temperatures sufficient to complete some process, such as hardening, drying, or chemical changes. Kilns have been used for millennia to turn objects made from clay into pottery, tiles and bricks. Various industries use rotary kilns for pyroprocessing—to calcinate ores, to calcinate limestone to lime for cement, and to transform many other materials. Pronunciation and etymology According to the Oxford English Dictionary, kiln was derived from the words cyline, cylene, cyln(e) in Old English, in turn derived from Latin ''culina'' ("kitchen"). In Middle English the word is attested as kulne, kyllne, kilne, kiln, kylle, kyll, kil, kill, keele, kiele. For over 600 years, the final "n" in kiln was silent. It wasn't until the late 20th century where the "n" began to be pronounced. This is due to a phenomenon known as spelling pronunciation, where the pronunciation of a word is surmised from its spelling an ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Annealing (glass)
Annealing is a process of slowly cooling hot glass objects after they have been formed, to relieve residual internal stresses introduced during manufacture. Especially for smaller, simpler objects, annealing may be incidental to the process of manufacture, but in larger or more complex products it commonly demands a special process of annealing in a temperature-controlled kiln known as a lehr (glassmaking), lehr.E. F. Collins (1921) Electrically heated glass annealing lehr. Journal of the American Ceramic Society 4 (5), pp. 335–349 Annealing of glass is critical to its durability. Glass that has not been properly annealed retains thermal stresses caused by quenching, which will indefinitely decrease the strength and reliability of the product. Inadequately annealed glass is likely to crack or shatter when subjected to relatively small temperature changes or to mechanical shock or stress. It even may fail spontaneously. To anneal glass, it is necessary to heat it to its annea ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Molding (process)
Molding (American English) or moulding (British and Commonwealth English; see spelling differences) is the process of manufacturing by shaping liquid or pliable raw material using a rigid frame called a mold or matrix. This itself may have been made using a pattern or model of the final object. A mold or mould is a hollowed-out block that is filled with a liquid or pliable material such as plastic, glass, metal, or ceramic raw material. The liquid hardens or sets inside the mold, adopting its shape. A mold is a counterpart to a cast. The very common bi-valve molding process uses two molds, one for each half of the object. Articulated molds have multiple pieces that come together to form the complete mold, and then disassemble to release the finished casting; they are expensive, but necessary when the casting shape has complex overhangs. Piece-molding uses a number of different molds, each creating a section of a complicated object. This is generally only used for larger a ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
