OpenAI o1OpenAI o1 is a generative pre-trained transformer (GPT), the first in OpenAI's "o" series of reasoning models. A preview of o1 was released by OpenAI on September 12, 2024. o1 spends time "thinking" before it answers, making it better at complex reasoning tasks, science and programming than GPT-4o. The full version was released to ChatGPT users on December 5, 2024.
Large language modelA large language model (LLM) is an AI model (typically a neural network) trained on a vast amount of text for natural language processing tasks, especially language generation. LLMs can typically generate, summarize, translate, and analyze text in many contexts. They are the basis for many modern chatbots, such as ChatGPT, Claude, Gemini, Grok, and DeepSeek. LLMs are typically based on transformer architecture.
OpenAI o3OpenAI o3 is a generative pre-trained transformer (GPT) model developed by OpenAI as a successor to OpenAI o1 for ChatGPT. It is designed to devote additional deliberation time when addressing questions that require step-by-step logical reasoning. On January 31, 2025, OpenAI released a smaller model, o3-mini, followed on April 16 by o3 and o4-mini. HistoryThe OpenAI o3 model was announced on December 20, 2024.
OpenAIUS artificial intelligence companyOpenAI is an American artificial intelligence (AI) public benefit corporation (PBC) headquartered in San Francisco, California. It develops proprietarygenerative AI models, particularly its generative pre-trained transformer (GPT) series of large language models. Its release of ChatGPT in November 2022 has been credited with catalyzing the AI boom; as of September 2026, ChatGPT is the fifth-most-visited website globally.
DeepSeekHangzhou DeepSeek Artificial Intelligence Basic Technology Research Co., Ltd., doing business asDeepSeek, is a Chinese artificial intelligence (AI) company that develops open weightslarge language models (LLMs). Based in Hangzhou, Zhejiang, DeepSeek is owned and funded by High-Flyer, a Chinese hedge fund. BackgroundDeepSeek was founded in July 2023 by Liang Wenfeng. The company launched an eponymous chatbot alongside its DeepSeek-R1 model in January 2025.
Richard S. SuttonRichard Stuart SuttonFRSFRSC (born 1957 or 1958) is a Canadian computer scientist. He is a professor of computing science at the University of Alberta, fellow & Chief Scientific Advisor at the Alberta Machine Intelligence Institute, and a research scientist at Keen Technologies. Sutton is considered one of the founders of modern computational reinforcement learning. In particular, he contributed to temporal difference learning and policy gradient methods.
Cross-entropyIn information theory, the cross-entropy between two probability distributionsp{\displaystyle p} and q{\displaystyle q}, over the same underlying set of events, measures the average number of bits needed to identify an event drawn from the set when the coding scheme used for the set is optimized for an estimated probability distribution q{\displaystyle q}, rather than the true distribution p{\displaystyle p}.
Neural scaling lawIn machine learning, a neural scaling law is an empirical scaling law that describes how neural network performance changes as key factors are scaled up or down. These factors typically include the number of parameters, training dataset size, and training cost. Some models also exhibit performance gains by scaling inference through increased test-time compute (TTC), extending neural scaling laws beyond training to the deployment phase.
Logistic regressionStatistical model for a binary dependent variableExample graph of a logistic regression curve fitted to data. The curve shows the estimated probability of passing an exam (binary dependent variable) versus hours studying (scalar independent variable). See § Example for worked details.In statistics, a logistic model (or logit model) is a statistical model that models the log-odds of an event as a linear combination of one or more independent variables.
DeepSeek (AI)DeepSeek is a generative artificial intelligence chatbot developed by the Chinese company DeepSeek. Released on 20 January 2025, DeepSeek-R1 surpassed ChatGPT as the most downloaded freeware app on the iOS App Store in the United States by 27 January. DeepSeek's success against larger and more established rivals has been described as "upending AI" and initiating "a global AI space race".BacktrackingBacktracking is a class of algorithms for finding solutions to some computational problems, notably constraint satisfaction or enumeration problems, that incrementally builds candidates to the solutions, and abandons a candidate ("backtracks") as soon as it determines that the candidate cannot possibly be completed to a valid solution.
ReasonReason is the capacity to consciously apply logic by drawing validconclusions from new or existing information, with the aim of seeking truth. It is associated with activities considered characteristic of humans, including philosophy, religion, science, language, and mathematics, and is generally considered a distinguishing ability possessed by humans. The term "reason" is sometimes used to refer to rationality, although the latter is more about its application.*As an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases.