Atmospheric circulationAtmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air and together with ocean circulation it is the means by which thermal energy is redistributed on the surface of Earth. Earth's atmospheric circulation varies from year to year, but the large-scale structure of its circulation remains fairly constant.
Intertropical Convergence ZoneThe Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ , or ICZ), known by sailors as the doldrums or the calms because of its monotonous windless weather, is the area where the northeast and the southeast trade winds converge. It encircles Earth near the thermal equator, though its specific position varies seasonally. When it lies near the geographic equator, it is called the near-equatorial trough.
TroposphereThe troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere of Earth. Pronounced , the name comes from Ancient Greek (trópos)'turning, change' and -sphere. It contains 80% of the total mass of the planetary atmosphere and 99% of the total mass of water vapor and aerosols, and is where most weather phenomena occur.
EquatorThe equator is the circle of latitude that divides Earth into the Northern and SouthernHemispheres. It is an imaginary line located at 0 degrees latitude, about 21,639 nautical miles (40,075 kilometres; 24,902 miles) in circumference, located halfway between the North and South Poles. The term can also be used for any other celestial body that is roughly spherical.
TropopauseThe tropopause is the atmospheric boundary that demarcates the lowest two layers of the atmosphere of Earth – the troposphere and stratosphere – which occurs approximately 17 kilometres (11 mi) above the equatorial regions, and approximately 9 kilometres (5.6 mi) above the polar regions.
SubtropicsGeographic and climate zoneAreas of the world with subtropical climatesThe subtropical zones or subtropics are geographical and climate zones immediately to the north and south of the tropics. Geographically part of the temperate zones of both hemispheres, they cover the middle latitudes from 23°26′08.9″ (or 23.43581°) to approximately 35° to 40° north and south. The horse latitudes lie within this range.
Trade windsThe trade winds, or easterlies, are east-to-west prevailing winds that flow in Earth's equatorial region. The trade winds blow mainly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere, strengthening during the winter and when the Arctic oscillation is in its warm phase. Trade winds have been used by captains of sailing ships to cross the world's oceans for centuries.
VenusSecond planet from the SunSurface absorbed doserate2.1×10 μGy/hSurface equivalent doserate2.2×10 μSv/h0.092–22 μSv/h at cloud levelApparent magnitude−4.92 to −2.98Absolute magnitude (H)−4.4Angular diameter9.7″–66.0″AtmosphereSurface pressure93 bar (9.3 MPa)92 atmComposition by volume96.5% carbon dioxide3.5% nitrogen0.015% sulphur dioxide0.0070% argon0.0020% water vapour0.0017% carbon monoxide0.0012% helium0.0007% neonTrace carbonyl sulfideTrace hydrogen chlorideTrace hydrogen fluoride^Defining the rotation as retrograde, as done by NASA space missions and the USGS, puts Ishtar Terra in the northern hemisphere and makes the axial tilt 2.64°.
MarsFourth planet from the SunSurface absorbed doserate8.8 μGy/hSurface equivalent doserate27 μSv/hApparent magnitude−2.94 to +1.86Absolute magnitude (H)−1.5Angular diameter3.5–25.1 arcsecondsAtmosphereSurface pressure0.636 (0.4–0.87) kPa0.00628 atmComposition by volume95.97% carbon dioxide1.93% argon1.89% nitrogen0.146% oxygen0.0557% carbon monoxide0.0210% water vaporMars is the fourth planet from the Sun.
Extraterrestrial atmosphereThe study of extraterrestrial atmospheres is an active field of research, both as an aspect of astronomy and to gain insight into Earth's atmosphere. In addition to Earth, many of the other astronomical objects in the Solar System have atmospheres. These include all the giant planets, as well as the other planets Mars, Venus and Titan, Triton, and Pluto. Several moons and other bodies also have atmospheres, as do comets and the Sun.
ClimateClimate is the long-term weather pattern in a region, typically averaged over 30 years. More rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. Some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation.
Solar irradianceSolar irradiance is the power per unit area (surface power density) received from the Sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range of the measuring instrument. Solar irradiance is measured in watts per square metre (W/m) in SI units. Solar irradiance is often integrated over a given time period in order to report the radiant energy emitted into the surrounding environment (joule per square metre, J/m) during that time period.
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