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( ), which literally means "martial heroes", is a genre of Chinese fiction concerning the adventures of martial artists in ancient China. Although is traditionally a form of
historical fiction Historical fiction is a literary genre in which the plot takes place in a setting related to the past events, but is fictional. Although the term is commonly used as a synonym for historical fiction literature, it can also be applied to other ty ...
, its popularity has caused it to be adapted for such diverse art forms as
Chinese opera Traditional Chinese opera (), or ''Xiqu'', is a form of musical theatre in China with roots going back to the early periods in China. It is an amalgamation of various art forms that existed in ancient China, and evolved gradually over more tha ...
,
manhua () are Chinese-language comics produced in China and Taiwan. Whilst Chinese comics and narrated illustrations have existed in China in some shape or form throughout its imperial history, the term first appeared in 1904 in a comic titled ''Cu ...
, television dramas, films, and video games. It forms part of
popular culture Popular culture (also called mass culture or pop culture) is generally recognized by members of a society as a set of practices, beliefs, artistic output (also known as, popular art or mass art) and objects that are dominant or prevalent in a ...
in many Chinese-speaking communities around the world. The word "" is a compound composed of the elements (, literally "martial", "military", or "armed") and (, literally "chivalrous", "
vigilante Vigilantism () is the act of preventing, investigating and punishing perceived offenses and crimes without Right, legal authority. A vigilante (from Spanish, Italian and Portuguese “vigilante”, which means "sentinel" or "watcher") is a pers ...
" or "hero"). A martial artist who follows the code of is often referred to as a (, literally "follower of ") or (, literally "wandering "). In some translations, the martial artist is referred to as a "swordsman" or "swordswoman" even though they may not necessarily wield a sword. The heroes in wuxia fiction typically do not serve a lord, wield military power, or belong to the aristocratic class. They often originate from the lower social classes of ancient Chinese society. A code of
chivalry Chivalry, or the chivalric code, is an informal and varying code of conduct developed in Europe between 1170 and 1220. It was associated with the medieval Christianity, Christian institution of knighthood; knights' and gentlemen's behaviours we ...
usually requires wuxia heroes to right and redress wrongs, fight for righteousness, remove oppressors, and bring retribution for past misdeeds. Chinese traditions can be compared to martial codes from other cultures, such as the Japanese
samurai were the hereditary military nobility and officer caste of medieval and early-modern Japan from the late 12th century until their abolition in 1876. They were the well-paid retainers of the '' daimyo'' (the great feudal landholders). They h ...
.


History


Earlier precedents

Even though the term "wuxia" as the name of a genre is a recent coinage, stories about xia date back more than 2,000 years. Wuxia stories have their roots in some early
youxia ''Youxia'' () was a type of ancient Chinese warrior folk hero celebrated in classical Chinese poetry and fictional literature. It literally means "wandering vigilante", but is commonly translated as "knight-errant" or less commonly as "cavalier", ...
tales from 300–200 BCE. The Legalist philosopher
Han Fei Han Fei (233), also known as Han Feizi or Han Fei Zi, was a Chinese philosopher or statesman of the "Legalist" (Fajia) school during the Warring States period, and a prince of the state of Han. Han Fei is often considered to be the greatest r ...
spoke disparagingly of youxias in his book ''
Han Feizi The ''Han Feizi'' or ''Hanfeizi'' (" ritings ofMaster Han Fei") is an ancient Chinese text named for its attribution to the political philosopher Han Fei. It comprises a selection of essays in the Legalist tradition on theories of state power, ...
'' in the chapter ''On Five 'Maggot' Classes'' about five social classes in the
Spring and Autumn period The Spring and Autumn period was a period in Chinese history from approximately 770 to 476 BC (or according to some authorities until 403 BC) which corresponds roughly to the first half of the Eastern Zhou period. The period's name derives fr ...
. Some well-known stories include
Zhuan Zhu Zhuan Zhu (專諸; died 515 BC) was an assassin in the Spring and Autumn period. As Prince Guang (later King Helü of Wu) wanted to kill King Liao of Wu Liao, King of Wu (; died 515 BC), also named Zhouyu, was king of the state of Wu in the Spri ...
's assassination of
King Liao of Wu Liao, King of Wu (; died 515 BC), also named Zhouyu, was king of the state of Wu in the Spring and Autumn period. Biography Liao was the grandson of King Shoumeng. He took the throne in 526 BC. During his time as king he led several battles agai ...
, and most notably,
Jing Ke Jing Ke (died 227 BC) was a ''youxia'' during the late Warring States period of Ancient China. As a retainer of Crown Prince Dan of the Yan state, he was infamous for his failed assassination attempt on King Zheng of the Qin state, who later beca ...
's attempt on the life of the King of Qin (who later became
Qin Shi Huang Qin Shi Huang (, ; 259–210 BC) was the founder of the Qin dynasty and the first emperor of a unified China. Rather than maintain the title of "king" ( ''wáng'') borne by the previous Shang and Zhou rulers, he ruled as the First Emperor ( ...
). In Volume 86 of the ''
Records of the Grand Historian ''Records of the Grand Historian'', also known by its Chinese name ''Shiji'', is a monumental history of China that is the first of China's 24 dynastic histories. The ''Records'' was written in the early 1st century by the ancient Chinese hist ...
'' (''Shi Ji''),
Sima Qian Sima Qian (; ; ) was a Chinese historian of the early Han dynasty (206AD220). He is considered the father of Chinese historiography for his ''Records of the Grand Historian'', a general history of China covering more than two thousand years b ...
mentioned five notable assassins –
Cao Mo Cao or CAO may refer to: Mythology *Cao (bull), a legendary bull in Meitei mythology Companies or organizations *Air China Cargo, ICAO airline designator CAO * CA Oradea, Romanian football club *CA Osasuna, Spanish football club *Canadian Assoc ...
,
Zhuan Zhu Zhuan Zhu (專諸; died 515 BC) was an assassin in the Spring and Autumn period. As Prince Guang (later King Helü of Wu) wanted to kill King Liao of Wu Liao, King of Wu (; died 515 BC), also named Zhouyu, was king of the state of Wu in the Spri ...
,
Yu Rang Yu Rang (traditional 豫讓; simplified 豫让, ?-453 BC) was a famous Chinese assassin in the Spring and Autumn period. Life according to the legend Yu Rang was an assassin in the early days of the Warring States period. He lived in the St ...
, Nie Zheng and Jing Ke – in the
Warring States period The Warring States period () was an era in History of China#Ancient China, ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded ...
who undertook tasks of conducting political assassinations of aristocrats and nobles. These assassins were known as ''cike'' (刺客; literally "stabbing guests"). They usually rendered their loyalties and services to feudal lords and nobles in return for rewards such as riches and women. In Volume 124 of the ''Shi Ji'', Sima Qian detailed several embryonic features of xia culture from his period. These popular phenomena were also documented in other historical records such as the ''
Book of Han The ''Book of Han'' or ''History of the Former Han'' (Qián Hàn Shū,《前汉书》) is a history of China finished in 111AD, covering the Western, or Former Han dynasty from the first emperor in 206 BCE to the fall of Wang Mang in 23 CE. ...
'' and the ''
Book of the Later Han The ''Book of the Later Han'', also known as the ''History of the Later Han'' and by its Chinese name ''Hou Hanshu'' (), is one of the Twenty-Four Histories and covers the history of the Han dynasty from 6 to 189 CE, a period known as the Later ...
''. Xiake stories made a turning point in the
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
(618–907) and returned in the form of ''chuanqi'' (傳奇; literally "legendary tales"). Stories from that era, such as ''
Nie Yinniang "Nie Yinniang" (Chinese: 聶隱娘, Niè Yǐnniáng) is a short story written in Classical Chinese by Pei Xing, a Chinese writer who lived during the Tang dynasty.Accessed 1.1.2016 The story is set in 9th century China and tells the story of Nie Yin ...
'' (聶隱娘), '' The Kunlun Slave'', '' Thirteenth Madame Jing'' (''荊十三娘''), '' Red String'' (紅線) and '' The Bearded Warrior'' (虬髯客), served as prototypes for modern wuxia stories. They featured fantasies and isolated protagonists – usually loners – who performed daring heroic deeds. During the
Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
(960–1279), similar stories circulated in the ''
huaben A ''huaben'' () is a Chinese short- or medium-length story or novella written mostly in Vernacular Chinese, vernacular language, sometimes including simple wenyan, classical language. In contrast to the full-length Chinese novel, it is generally not ...
'', short works that were once thought to have served as prompt-books for ''
shuochang ''Quyi'' ("melodious art") and ''shuochang yishu'' ("speaking and singing art") are umbrella terms for over 300 regional genres of traditional Chinese oral performing arts. ''Quyi'' is distinguished from ''xiqu'' (Chinese opera) by its emphasis o ...
'' (traditional Chinese storytelling). The genre of the martial or military romance also developed during the Tang dynasty. In the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
(1368-1644),
Luo Guanzhong Luo Ben (c. 1330–1400, or c.1280–1360), better known by his courtesy name Guanzhong (Mandarin pronunciation: ), was a Chinese writer who lived during the Ming dynasty. He was also known by his pseudonym Huhai Sanren (). Luo was attri ...
and
Shi Nai'an Shi Nai'an (, ca. 1296–1372) was a Chinese writer from the Yuan and early Ming periods. ''Shuihu zhuan'' (''Water Margin''), one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature, is traditionally attributed to him. There are few re ...
wrote ''
Romance of the Three Kingdoms ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' () is a 14th-century historical novel attributed to Luo Guanzhong. It is set in the turbulent years towards the end of the Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period in Chinese history, starting in 184 AD and ...
'' and ''
Water Margin ''Water Margin'' (''Shuihu zhuan'') is one of the earliest Chinese novels written in vernacular Mandarin, and is attributed to Shi Nai'an. It is also translated as ''Outlaws of the Marsh'' and ''All Men Are Brothers''. The story, which is s ...
'' respectively, which are among the
Great Classical Novels Great may refer to: Descriptions or measurements * Great, a relative measurement in physical space, see Size * Greatness, being divine, majestic, superior, majestic, or transcendent People * List of people known as "the Great" *Artel Great (born ...
of Chinese literature. The former is a romanticised historical retelling of the events in the late
Eastern Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...
and the
Three Kingdoms The Three Kingdoms () from 220 to 280 AD was the tripartite division of China among the dynastic states of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. The Three Kingdoms period was preceded by the Han dynasty#Eastern Han, Eastern Han dynasty and wa ...
period, while the latter criticises the deplorable socio-economic status of the late Northern Song dynasty. ''Water Margin'' is often seen as the first full-length wuxia novel: the portrayal of the
108 heroes The 108 Heroes are the main characters of the Ming dynasty classic Chinese novel the ''Water Margin'', which was written in the 14th century and usually attributed to Shi Nai'an. The heroes are divided into the 36 Heavenly Spirits and 72 Earthly F ...
, and their code of honour and willingness to become outlaws rather than serve a corrupt government, played an influential role in the development of
jianghu ''Jianghu'' () is a term that generally refers to the milieu, environment, or sub-community in which many Chinese wuxia stories are set. The term is used flexibly, and can be used to describe a fictionalized version of Historical China (usually ...
culture in later centuries. ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' is also seen as a possible early antecedent and contains classic close-combat descriptions that were later emulated by wuxia writers in their works In the
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
(1644-1911), further developments were the ''
gong'an Gong'an County () is a county in southern Hubei province, People's Republic of China, bordering Hunan to the south. It is under the administration of Jingzhou City. History During the Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms era, Gong'an County was k ...
'' (公案; literally "public case") and related detective novels, where xia and other heroes, in collaboration with a judge or magistrate, solved crimes and battled injustice. The Justice Bao stories from ''Sanxia Wuyi'' (三俠五義; later extended and renamed to '' Qixia Wuyi'') and ''
Xiaowuyi ''The Five Younger Gallants'' (小五義) is an 1890 Chinese novel and the best known sequel to the hugely popular 1879 novel ''The Tale of Loyal Heroes and Righteous Gallants'' (republished as ''The Seven Heroes and Five Gallants'' in 1889). It is ...
'' (小五義), incorporated much of social justice themes of later wuxia stories. Xiayi stories of chivalrous romance, which frequently featured female heroes and supernatural fighting abilities, also surfaced during the Qing dynasty. Novels such as ''
Shi Gong'an Qiwen Shi or SHI may refer to: Language * ''Shi'', a Japanese title commonly used as a pronoun * ''Shi'', proposed gender-neutral pronoun * Shi (kana), a kana in Japanese syllabaries * Shi language * ''Shī'', transliteration of Chinese Radical 44 ...
'' (施公案奇聞) and '' Ernü Yingxiong Zhuan'' (兒女英雄傳) have been cited as the clearest nascent wuxia novels. The term "wuxia" as a genre label itself first appeared at the end of the Qing dynasty, a
calque In linguistics, a calque () or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal word-for-word or root-for-root translation. When used as a verb, "to calque" means to borrow a word or phrase from another language wh ...
of the Japanese " bukyō", a genre of oft-militaristic and
bushido is a moral code concerning samurai attitudes, behavior and lifestyle. There are multiple bushido types which evolved significantly through history. Contemporary forms of bushido are still used in the social and economic organization of Japan. ...
-influenced adventure fiction. The term was brought to China by writers and students who hoped that China would modernise its military and place emphasis on martial virtues, and it quickly became entrenched as the term used to refer to xiayi and other predecessors of wuxia proper. In Japan, however, the term "bukyō" faded into obscurity. Many wuxia works produced during the Ming and Qing dynasties were lost due to the governments' crackdown on and banning of such works. Wuxia works were deemed responsible for brewing anti-government sentiments, which led to rebellions in those eras. The departure from mainstream literature also meant that patronage of this genre was limited to the masses and not to the literati, which led to the stifling of the development of the wuxia genre. Nonetheless, the wuxia genre remained enormously popular with the common people.


20th century

The modern wuxia genre rose to prominence in the early 20th century after the
May Fourth Movement The May Fourth Movement was a Chinese anti-imperialist, cultural, and political movement which grew out of student protests in Beijing on May 4, 1919. Students gathered in front of Tiananmen (The Gate of Heavenly Peace) to protest the Chinese ...
of 1919. A new literature evolved, calling for a break with Confucian values, and the xia emerged as a symbol of personal freedom, defiance to Confucian tradition, and rejection of the Chinese family system. Xiang Kairan (pen name Pingjiang Buxiaosheng) became the first notable wuxia writer, with his debut novel being '' The Peculiar Knights-Errant of the Jianghu'' (江湖奇俠傳). It was serialised from 1921–28 and was adapted into the first wuxia film, ''
The Burning of the Red Lotus Temple ''The Burning of the Red Lotus Temple'' () is a lost Chinese silent film serial directed by Zhang Shichuan, widely considered to be the founding father of Chinese cinema. The film is adapted from the novel ''The Tale of the Extraordinary Swordsm ...
'' (1928). Zhao Huanting (趙煥亭), who wrote '' Chronicles of the Loyal Knights-Errant'' (奇俠精忠傳, serialised 1923–27), was another well-known wuxia writer based in
Shanghai Shanghai (; , , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ) is one of the four direct-administered municipalities of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The city is located on the southern estuary of the Yangtze River, with the Huangpu River flow ...
. Starting from the 1930s, wuxia works proliferated and its centre shifted to
Beijing } Beijing ( ; ; ), alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the capital of the People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's most populous national capital city, with over 21 ...
and
Tianjin Tianjin (; ; Mandarin: ), alternately romanized as Tientsin (), is a municipality and a coastal metropolis in Northern China on the shore of the Bohai Sea. It is one of the nine national central cities in Mainland China, with a total popul ...
in northern China. The most prolific writers there were collectively referred to as the ''Five Great Masters of the Northern School'' (北派五大家):
Huanzhulouzhu Li Shoumin ( zh, t=李壽民, w=Li Shou-min; 1902–1961), better known by his pen name Huanzhulouzhu ( zh, t=還珠樓主, w=Huan-chu-lou-chu, l=Owner of Building of Returning the Pearl, links=no), was a Chinese ''wuxia'' and '' xianxia'' writer ...
, who wrote '' The Swordspeople from Shu Mountains'' (蜀山劍俠傳);
Gong Baiyu Gong Baiyu (Chinese: 宮白羽; September 9, 1899 - 1966) was a Chinese novelist of the Republican period, an early exponent of the martial arts (wuxia) genre that rose to new heights of popularity with the next generation of writers, such as Jin ...
(宮白羽), who wrote ''
Twelve Coin Darts Twelve or 12 may refer to: * 12 (number) * December, the twelfth and final month of the year Years * 12 BC * AD 12 * 1912 * 2012 Film * Twelve (2010 film), ''Twelve'' (2010 film), based on the 2002 novel * 12 (2007 film), ''12'' (2007 film), by ...
'' (十二金錢鏢);
Wang Dulu Wang may refer to: Names * Wang (surname) (王), a common Chinese surname * Wāng (汪), a less common Chinese surname * Titles in Chinese nobility * A title in Korean nobility * A title in Mongolian nobility Places * Wang River in Thail ...
, who wrote '' The Crane-Iron Pentalogy'' (鹤鉄五部作); Zheng Zhengyin (郑証因), who wrote '' The King of Eagle Claws'' (鹰爪王);
Zhu Zhenmu Zhu or ZHU may refer to: *Zhu (surname), common Chinese surnames *Zhu River, or Pearl River, in southern China *Zhu (state), ancient Chinese state, later renamed Zou *House of Zhu, the ruling house of the Ming dynasty in Chinese history *Zhu (stri ...
(朱貞木), who wrote ''
The Seven 'Kill' Stele ''The'' () is a grammatical Article (grammar), article in English language, English, denoting persons or things already mentioned, under discussion, implied or otherwise presumed familiar to listeners, readers, or speakers. It is the definite ...
'' (七殺碑). Wuxia fiction was banned at various times during the
Republican era Republican Era can refer to: * Minguo calendar, the official era of the Republic of China It may also refer to any era in a country's history when it was governed as a republic or by a Republican Party. In particular, it may refer to: * Roman Rep ...
and these restrictions stifled the growth of the genre. In spite of this, wuxia writing prevailed in other Chinese-speaking regions, such as Taiwan and Hong Kong. Between the
1960s File:1960s montage.png, Clockwise from top left: U.S. soldiers during the Vietnam War; the Beatles led the British Invasion of the U.S. music market; a half-a-million people participate in the 1969 Woodstock Festival; Neil Armstrong and Buzz ...
and
1980s File:1980s replacement montage02.PNG, 420px, From left, clockwise: The first Space Shuttle, ''Columbia'', lifts off in 1981; US president Ronald Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev ease tensions between the two superpowers, leading to the ...
, the genre entered a
golden age The term Golden Age comes from Greek mythology, particularly the ''Works and Days'' of Hesiod, and is part of the description of temporal decline of the state of peoples through five Ages of Man, Ages, Gold being the first and the one during ...
. Writers such as
Liang Yusheng Chen Wentong (5 April 1924 – 22 January 2009), better known by his pen name Liang Yusheng, was a Chinese writer. Credited as the pioneer of the "New School" (新派) of the ''wuxia'' genre in the 20th century, Chen was one of the best known ...
and Louis Cha ( Jin Yong) spearheaded the founding of a "new school" of the wuxia genre that differed largely from its predecessors. They wrote serials for newspapers and magazines. They also incorporated several fictional themes such as mystery and romance from other cultures. In Taiwan,
Wolong Sheng Niu Heting (; 1930–1997), better known by his pen name Wolong Sheng (), was a Chinese writer of ''wuxia'' novels. Niu was born in Zhenping County, Henan, China. He published about 30 novels in a span of over two decades and his works dominated ...
,
Sima Ling Wu Siming (; 1933–1989), better known by his pen name Sima Ling (), was a Chinese writer of ''wuxia ( ), which literally means "martial heroes", is a genre of Chinese fiction concerning the adventures of martial artists in ancient Chin ...
,
Zhuge Qingyun Zhuge in Chinese, Jegal in Korean, Gia Cát in Vietnamese or Morokuzu in Japanese is a compound surname in East Asia. It is ranked 314th in ''Hundred Family Surnames'' in China. The surname has often been synonymous with wisdom in Chinese culture ...
(諸葛青雲),
Shiao Yi Shiao Yi (; 4 June 1935 – 19 November 2018) was a Chinese American wuxia ("martial hero") novelist. and screenwriter who is considered one of the greatest of the genre in the modern era. Shiao Yi was also the founder and first chairman of the ...
(萧逸) and
Gu Long Xiong Yaohua (7 June 1938 – 21 September 1985), better known by his pen name Gu Long, was a Hong Kong-born Taiwanese novelist, screenwriter, film producer and director. A graduate of Cheng Kung Senior High School and Tamkang University, Xio ...
became the region's best known wuxia writers. After them, writers such as
Woon Swee Oan Woon Swee Oan (born Woon Liang Giok in January 1954), also known as Wen Rui'an, is a Hong Kong-based Malaysian poet and writer of wuxia novels. Some of his best known works include '' Jingyan Yi Qiang'', '' Buyi Shenxiang'', and '' Si Da Ming B ...
and Huang Yi rose to prominence in a later period. Chen Yu-hui is a contemporary female wuxia novelist who made her debut with the novel '' The Tian-Guan Duo Heroes'' (天觀雙俠). There have also been works created after the 1980s which attempt to create a post-wuxia genre.
Yu Hua Yu Hua (; born April 3, 1960, in Hangzhou, Zhejiang province) is a Chinese author. Shortly after his debut as a fiction writer in 1983, his first breakthrough came in 1987, when he released the short story '' On the Road at Age Eighteen''. Yu ...
, one of the more notable writers from this period, published a counter-genre short story titled '' Blood and Plum Blossoms'', in which the protagonist goes on a quest to avenge his murdered father.


Themes, plots and settings

Modern wuxia stories are largely set in
ancient Ancient history is a time period from the History of writing, beginning of writing and recorded human history to as far as late antiquity. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with the Sumerian language, Sumerian c ...
or pre-modern China. The historical setting can range from being quite specific and important to the story, to being vaguely-defined, anachronistic, or mainly for use as a backdrop. Elements of fantasy, such as the use of magic powers and appearance of supernatural beings, are common in some wuxia stories but are not a prerequisite of the wuxia genre. However, the martial arts element is a definite part of a wuxia tale, as the characters must know some form of martial arts. Themes of romance are also strongly featured in some wuxia tales. A typical wuxia story features a young male protagonist who experiences a tragedy – such as the loss of his loved ones – and goes on to undertake several trials and tribulations to learn several forms of martial arts from various fighters. At the end of the story, he emerges as a powerful fighter whom few can equal. He uses his abilities to follow the code of xia and mends the ills of the
jianghu ''Jianghu'' () is a term that generally refers to the milieu, environment, or sub-community in which many Chinese wuxia stories are set. The term is used flexibly, and can be used to describe a fictionalized version of Historical China (usually ...
. For instance, the opening chapters of some of Jin Yong's works follow a certain pattern: a tragic event occurs, usually one that costs the lives of the newly introduced characters, and then it sets events into motion that will culminate in the primary action of the story. Other stories use different structures. For instance, the protagonist is denied admission into a martial arts sect. He experiences hardships and trains secretly and waits until there is an opportunity for him to show off his skills and surprise those who initially looked down on him. Some stories feature a mature hero with powerful martial arts abilities confronting an equally powerful antagonist as his nemesis. The plot will gradually meander to a final dramatic showdown between the protagonist and his nemesis. These types of stories were prevalent during the era of anti-
Qing The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speaki ...
revolutionaries. Certain stories have unique plots, such as those by
Gu Long Xiong Yaohua (7 June 1938 – 21 September 1985), better known by his pen name Gu Long, was a Hong Kong-born Taiwanese novelist, screenwriter, film producer and director. A graduate of Cheng Kung Senior High School and Tamkang University, Xio ...
and Huang Yi. Gu Long's works have an element of mystery and are written like detective stories. The protagonist, usually a formidable martial artist and intelligent problem-solver, embarks on a quest to solve a mystery such as a murder case. Huang Yi's stories are blended with science fiction. Despite these genre-blending elements, wuxia is primarily a historical genre of fiction. Notwithstanding this, wuxia writers openly admit that they are unable to capture the entire history of a course of events and instead choose to structure their stories along the pattern of the protagonist's progression from childhood to adulthood instead. The progression may be symbolic rather than literal, as observed in Jin Yong's ''
The Smiling, Proud Wanderer ''The Smiling, Proud Wanderer'' is a wuxia novel by Jin Yong (Louis Cha). It was first serialised in Hong Kong in the newspaper ''Ming Pao'' from 20 April 1967 to 12 October 1969. The Chinese title of the novel, ''Xiao Ao Jiang Hu'', literally m ...
'', where
Linghu Chong The following is a list of characters from the wuxia novel ''The Smiling, Proud Wanderer'' by Jin Yong. Five Mountain Sword Sects Alliance Mount Hua Sect * Linghu Chong () is the happy-go-lucky protagonist of the novel. An orphan, he was ra ...
progresses from childish concerns and dalliances into much more adult ones as his unwavering loyalty repeatedly thrusts him into the rocks of betrayal at the hands of his inhumane master.


Code of xia

The eight common attributes of the xia are listed as benevolence, justice, individualism, loyalty, courage, truthfulness, disregard for wealth, and desire for glory. Apart from individualism, these characteristics are similar to Confucian values such as '' ren'' (仁; "benevolence", "kindness"), ''zhong'' (忠; "loyalty"), ''yong'' (勇; "courage", "bravery") and '' yi'' (義; "righteousness"). The code of xia also emphasises the importance of repaying benefactors after having received deeds of ''en'' (恩; "grace", "favour") from others, as well as seeking ''chou'' (仇; "vengeance", "revenge") to bring villains to justice. However, the importance of vengeance is controversial, as a number of wuxia works stress Buddhist ideals, which include forgiveness, compassion and a prohibition on killing. In the
jianghu ''Jianghu'' () is a term that generally refers to the milieu, environment, or sub-community in which many Chinese wuxia stories are set. The term is used flexibly, and can be used to describe a fictionalized version of Historical China (usually ...
, martial artists are expected to be loyal to their master (
Shifu Shifu () in Mandarin, or sifu in Cantonese, or sai hu in Hokkien, is a title for, and the role of, a skillful person or a master. The character 師/师 means "skilled person" or "teacher," while 傅 means "tutor" and 父 means "father." Though ...
). This gives rise to the formation of several complex trees of master-apprentice relations as well as the various sects such as Shaolin and Wudang. If there are any disputes between fighters, they will choose the honourable way of settling their issues through fighting in duels.


Skills and abilities

The martial arts in wuxia stories are based on wushu techniques and other real life
Chinese martial arts Chinese martial arts, often called by the umbrella terms Kung fu (term), kung fu (; ), kuoshu () or wushu (sport), wushu (), are Styles of Chinese martial arts, multiple fighting styles that have developed over the centuries in Greater China. Th ...
. In wuxia tales, however, the mastery of such skills are highly exaggerated to superhuman levels of achievement and prowess. The following is a list of skills and abilities a typical fighter in a wuxia story possesses: *
Martial arts Martial arts are codified systems and traditions of combat practiced for a number of reasons such as self-defense; military and law enforcement applications; combat sport, competition; physical, mental, and spiritual development; entertainment; a ...
(武功): Fighting techniques in a codified sequence called ''zhaoshi'' (招式), which are based on real life Chinese martial arts. * Weapons and objects: Combatants use a wide range of weapons in combat. The most commonly used ones are the ''
dao Dao, Dão or DAO may refer to: * Tao (Chinese: "The Way" 道), a philosophical concept * Dao (Chinese sword) (刀), a type of Chinese sword * Dao (Naga sword), a weapon and a tool of Naga people People and language * Yao people, a minority ethni ...
'' (broadsword or saber), ''
jian The ''jian'' (pronunciation (劍), English approximation: ) is a double-edged straight sword used during the last 2,500 years in China. The first Chinese sources that mention the ''jian'' date to the 7th century BCE, during the Spring and ...
'' (sword), ''
gun A gun is a ranged weapon designed to use a shooting tube (gun barrel) to launch projectiles. The projectiles are typically solid, but can also be pressurized liquid (e.g. in water guns/cannons, spray guns for painting or pressure washing, p ...
'' (staff), and '' qiang'' (spear). Everyday objects such as abaci, benches, fans, ink brushes, smoking pipes, sewing needles, or various musical instruments, are also used as weapons as well. * ''
Qinggong Qinggong is a training technique for jumping off vertical surfaces from the Chinese martial art Baguazhang. The practitioner runs up a plank supported against a wall. The gradient of the plank is increased gradually over time as the training progr ...
'' (轻功): A form of real Chinese martial arts. In wuxia fiction, however, its use is exaggerated to the point that characters can circumvent gravity to fly, cover tremendous distances in a single stride, run across surfaces of water, mount trees, and jump over or scale high walls. * ''Neili'' (内力; lit "internal force" or "internal strength")/''
Neigong Neigong, also spelled ''nei kung'', ''neigung'', or ''nae gong'', refers to any of a set of Chinese breathing, meditation, somatics practices, and spiritual practice disciplines associated with Daoism and especially the Chinese martial arts. Neig ...
'' (內功; literally "internal skill" or "internal function"): The ability to build up and cultivate inner energy known as '' qi'' and utilise it for attack and defensive purposes. Characters use this energy to attain skills such as superhuman strength, speed, stamina, durability and healing as well as the ability to project energy beams and elemental forces from their bodies. * '' Dianxue'' (點穴; literally "touching
acupuncture point Acupuncture is a form of alternative medicine and a component of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in which thin needles are inserted into the body. Acupuncture is a pseudoscience; the theories and practices of TCM are not based on scientif ...
s"): Characters use various
acupuncture Acupuncture is a form of alternative medicine and a component of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in which thin needles are inserted into the body. Acupuncture is a pseudoscience; the theories and practices of TCM are not based on scientif ...
techniques to kill, paralyse, immobilise or even manipulate opponents by attacking their
acupressure Acupressure is an alternative medicine technique often used in conjunction with acupuncture or reflexology. It is based on the concept of life energy, which flows through "meridians" in the body. In treatment, physical pressure is applied to ac ...
points with their bare hands or weapons. Such techniques can also be used for healing purposes, such as halting excessive bleeding. Real life martial artists do use such techniques to paralyse or stun their opponents, however, their effectiveness is highly exaggerated in wuxia stories. In wuxia stories, characters attain the above skills and abilities by devoting themselves to years of diligent study and exercise, but can also have such power conferred upon them by a master who transfers his energy to them. The instructions to mastering these skills through training are found in secret manuals known as ''miji'' (秘笈). In some stories, specific skills can be learned by spending several years in seclusion with a master or training with a group of fighters.


Literature

Notable modern wuxia writers include:


Comics

New and original wuxia writings have dwindled significantly in modern times, particularly so as patronage and readerships of the genre decimated due to readily available alternatives in entertainment such as DVDs, gaming consoles and so forth. The genre has proliferated in
manhua () are Chinese-language comics produced in China and Taiwan. Whilst Chinese comics and narrated illustrations have existed in China in some shape or form throughout its imperial history, the term first appeared in 1904 in a comic titled ''Cu ...
(Chinese comics) in places like Hong Kong and Taiwan, with the core essentials of the wuxia genre living on in weekly editions equivalent to the Japanese
manga Manga (Japanese: 漫画 ) are comics or graphic novels originating from Japan. Most manga conform to a style developed in Japan in the late 19th century, and the form has a long prehistory in earlier Japanese art. The term ''manga'' is u ...
. Some notable comic artists are listed as follows:


Film and television

The earliest wuxia films date back to the 1920s. Extant early wuxia films produced in China include ''Red Heroine'' (1929), ''Woman Warrior White Rose'' (1929), and ''Woman Warrior of the Wild River 6: Rumble at Deerhorn Gully'' (1930), the sixth film in a series. ''Hua Mu Lan'' (1939), another surviving film, is considered a representative of the second wave of wuxia films, during the Anti-Japanese War. Chapter 9 Films directed by
King Hu Hu Jinquan (29 April 1932 – 14 January 1997), better known as King Hu, was a Chinese film director and actor based in Hong Kong and Taiwan. He is best known for directing various ''wuxia'' films in the 1960s and 1970s, which brought Cinema of ...
and produced by the
Shaw Brothers Studio Shaw Brothers (HK) Ltd. () was the largest film production company in Hong Kong, and operated from 1925 to 2011. In 1925, three Shaw brothers— Runje, Runme, and Runde—founded Tianyi Film Company (also called "Unique") in Shangh ...
featured sophisticated action choreography using wire and trampoline assisted acrobatics combined with sped-up camera techniques. The storylines in the early films were loosely adapted from existing literature. Cheng Pei-pei, Jimmy Wang and
Connie Chan Connie Chan may refer to: *Connie Chan (actor) (born 1947), Chinese actor *Connie Chan (politician) Connie Chan (; born October 3, 1978) is an American politician serving as a member of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors for District 1 sinc ...
are among the better known wuxia movie stars in the 1960s–70s, when films made by King Hu and the Shaw Brothers Studio were most prominent. More recent wuxia movie actors and actresses include
Jet Li Li Lianjie (courtesy name Yangzhong; born 26 April 1963), better known by his stage name Jet Li, is a Chinese film actor, film producer, Chinese martial arts, martial artist, and retired wushu (sport), Wushu champion. He is a naturalized Singapo ...
, Brigitte Lin,
Michelle Yeoh Michelle Yeoh Choo Kheng, ( ; born 6 August 1962) is a Malaysian actress. Credited as Michelle Khan in her early Hong Kong films, she rose to fame in the 1990s after starring in a series of Hong Kong action films where she performed her own ...
,
Donnie Yen Donnie Yen Chi-tan (; born 27 July 1963) is a Hong Kong actor, martial artist, and action director. Yen is one of Hong Kong's top action stars. Yen is widely credited for bringing mixed martial arts (MMA) into the mainstream Asian cinema by cho ...
, Tony Leung and
Zhang Ziyi Zhang Ziyi (; ; born 9 February 1979) is a Chinese actress and model. She is regarded as one of the Four Dan Actresses of China. Her first major role was in '' The Road Home'' (1999). She later gained international recognition for her role in ...
. Yuen Woo-ping is a choreographer who achieved fame by crafting action-sequences in wuxia films. Wuxia was introduced to Hollywood studios in 2000 by
Ang Lee Ang Lee (; born October 23, 1954) is a Taiwanese filmmaker. Born in Pingtung County of southern Taiwan, Lee was educated in Taiwan and later in the United States. During his filmmaking career, he has received international critical and popula ...
's '' Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon'', though influence of the genre was previously seen in the United States in the 1970s television series ''
Kung Fu Chinese martial arts, often called by the umbrella terms kung fu (; ), kuoshu () or wushu (), are multiple fighting styles that have developed over the centuries in Greater China. These fighting styles are often classified according to common ...
''. Following in Lee's footsteps,
Zhang Yimou Zhang Yimou (; born 2 April 1950) is a Chinese film director, producer, writer, actor and former cinematographer.Tasker, Yvonne (2002). "Zhang Yimou" i''Fifty Contemporary Filmmakers'' Routledge Publishing, p. 412. . Google Book Search. Retriev ...
made ''
Hero A hero (feminine: heroine) is a real person or a main fictional character who, in the face of danger, combats adversity through feats of ingenuity, courage, or Physical strength, strength. Like other formerly gender-specific terms (like ...
'', targeted for the international market in 2002, ''
House of Flying Daggers ''House of Flying Daggers'' ( Chinese: 十面埋伏) is a 2004 ''wuxia'' romance film directed by Zhang Yimou and starring Andy Lau, Zhang Ziyi and Takeshi Kaneshiro. Unlike other ''wuxia'' films, it is more of a love story than purely a marti ...
'' in 2004, ''
Curse of the Golden Flower ''Curse of the Golden Flower'' () is a 2006 Chinese epic wuxia drama film written and directed by Zhang Yimou. The Mandarin Chinese title of the movie is taken from the last line of the Qi dynasty poem written by the rebel leader Huang Chao who h ...
'' in 2006 and ''
Shadow A shadow is a dark area where light from a light source is blocked by an opaque object. It occupies all of the three-dimensional volume behind an object with light in front of it. The cross section of a shadow is a two-dimensional silhouette, o ...
'' in 2018. Western audiences were also introduced to wuxia through Asian television stations in larger cities, which featured miniseries such as ''
Warriors of the Yang Clan ''Warriors of the Yang Clan'' is a 2004 Chinese costume drama, based on the '' Generals of the Yang Family'' legends. Plot Though full of ideas and passion, the 4th son of the Song Dynasty general Yang Ye never seemed capable to satisfy his fath ...
'' and ''Paradise'', often with English subtitles. A modern film that refers to the underworld interpretation of jianghu, is
Ash Is Purest White ''Ash Is Purest White'' ( zh, 江湖儿女; 'Sons and Daughters of Jianghu') is a 2018 Chinese drama directed by Jia Zhangke. It was selected to compete for the Palme d'Or at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival. The story is loosely based on the lea ...
(Chinese: 江湖儿女; 'Sons and Daughters of Jianghu'), a 2018 Chinese drama directed by Jia Zhangke. It was selected to compete for the Palme d'Or at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival. The story is loosely based on the leader of a gang from Jia Zhangke's childhood, whom he had admired as a role model. Like the rest of Jia's films, it opened to widespread acclaim. Western attempts at the genre have been limited, such as the 2008 film ''
The Forbidden Kingdom ''The Forbidden Kingdom'' (: ''Gong Fu Zhi Wang'' ( Mandarin) or ''Gung Fu Ji Wong'' (Cantonese) and translated ''King of Kung Fu'' (English); Working title: ''The J & J Project'') is a 2008 wuxia film written by John Fusco, and directed by Rob ...
'', which starred
Jackie Chan Fang Shilong (born 7 April 1954), known professionally in English as Jackie Chan and in Chinese as Cheng Long ( zh, c=成龍, j=Sing4 Lung4; "becoming the dragon"), is a Hong Kong actor, filmmaker, martial artist, and stuntman known for ...
,
Jet Li Li Lianjie (courtesy name Yangzhong; born 26 April 1963), better known by his stage name Jet Li, is a Chinese film actor, film producer, Chinese martial arts, martial artist, and retired wushu (sport), Wushu champion. He is a naturalized Singapo ...
and
Michael Angarano Michael Anthony Angarano (born December 3, 1987) is an American actor. He became known for his roles in the film '' Music of the Heart'' (1999) and the television series '' Cover Me'' (2000–2001), as well as for playing a recurring role as Ell ...
; other movies including wuxia elements are the first three in '' The Matrix film series'' (1999-2003, the fourth one from 2021 was choreographed by Joshua Grothe) and the '' Kill Bill films'' from 2003-2004, all of which were choregraphed by Yuen Woo-Ping. However, a major exception is
DreamWorks Animation DreamWorks Animation LLC (DWA, also known as DreamWorks Animation Studios and simply known as DreamWorks) is an American animation studio that produces animated films and television programs and is a subsidiary of Universal Pictures, a division ...
's media franchise ''
Kung Fu Panda ''Kung Fu Panda'' is an American media franchise that originally started in 2008 with the release of the animated feature film of the same name, produced by DreamWorks Animation. Following the adventures of the titular Po Ping (primarily voic ...
''. Created as an earnest, if humorous, emulation by producers who were knowledgeable admirers of the genre, the series has been particularly hailed in China as an excellent contribution to the form. More recently, 1990s–2000s Hong Kong stars
Daniel Wu Daniel Ng Neh-Tsu (, born September 30, 1974) is an American actor, director and producer based in Hong Kong. He is known as a "flexible and distinctive" leading actor in the Chinese language film industry. Since his film debut in 1998, he has ...
and
Stephen Fung use both this parameter and , birth_date to display the person's date of birth, date of death, and age at death) --> , death_place = , death_cause = , body_discovered = , resting_place = , resting_place_coordinates ...
have worked with
AMC Networks AMC Networks Inc. is an American entertainment company headquartered in 11 Penn Plaza, New York. AMC Networks owns and operates the eponymous cable channel and its siblings, IFC, We TV, and Sundance TV; the art house movie theater IFC Cen ...
to bring wuxia to a US television audience with '' Into the Badlands'', which premiered in 2015 and ran for three seasons.


Video games

Some notable wuxia video games of the
action RPG An action role-playing game (often abbreviated action RPG or ARPG) is a subgenre of video games that combines core elements from both the action game and role-playing genre. Definition The games emphasize real-time combat where the player h ...
genre include ''
The Legend of Sword and Fairy ''The Legend of Sword and Fairy'' (), also known as ''Chinese Paladin'', is a game/media franchise created by Yao Zhuangxian and is developed by Taiwanese company Softstar. The franchise centers on a series of Chinese mythology-based role-play ...
'', ''
Xuan-Yuan Sword ''Xuan-Yuan Sword'' (, literally "Sword of the Xuan-Yuan") is a series of Taiwanese role-playing video games for personal computers developed by the DOMO Studio (DOMO小組/多魔小組) of Softstar Entertainment Inc. (大宇資訊) based in Tai ...
'', ''
Jade Empire ''Jade Empire'' is an action role-playing game developed by BioWare, originally published by Microsoft Game Studios in 2005 as an Xbox exclusive. It was later ported to Microsoft Windows personal computers (PC) and published by 2K Games in 200 ...
'', and ''
Kingdom of Paradise ''Kingdom of Paradise'' is an action role-playing video game available for the PlayStation Portable handheld system. The game is called in Japan and ''Key of Heaven'' in Europe. On April 24, 2008 it was released as a downloadable title from the N ...
'', all of which blend wuxia with elements of
Chinese mythology Chinese mythology () is mythology that has been passed down in oral form or recorded in literature in the geographic area now known as Greater China. Chinese mythology includes many varied myths from regional and cultural traditions. Much of t ...
and fantasy. ''The Legend of Sword and Fairy'', in particular, expanded into a franchise of eight video games, two of which were adapted into the television series ''
Chinese Paladin ''The Legend of Sword and Fairy'' (), also known as ''Chinese Paladin'', is a game/media franchise created by Yao Zhuangxian and is developed by Taiwanese company Softstar. The franchise centers on a series of Chinese mythology-based role-play ...
'' (2005) and ''
Chinese Paladin 3 ''The Legend of Sword and Fairy 3'' ( zh, t=仙劍奇俠傳三, s=仙剑奇侠传三, p=Xiānjiàn Qíxiá Zhuàn Sān), also known as ''Sword and Fairy 3'' () or ''Chinese Paladin 3'',MMORPGs, such as ''
Heroes of Kung Fu Heroes or Héroes may refer to: * Hero, one who displays courage and self-sacrifice for the greater good Film * ''Heroes'' (1977 film), an American drama * ''Heroes'' (2008 film), an Indian Hindi film Gaming * ''Heroes of Might and Magic'' ...
'' and '' Age of Wulin'', and hack and slash games, such as '' Bujingai'' and ''
Heavenly Sword ''Heavenly Sword'' is a 2007 action-adventure hack and slash video game developed by Ninja Theory and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation 3. Gameplay The game is an action-adventure title with heavy hack and slash game ...
''. Games adapted from the works of wuxia writers include ''
Heroes of Jin Yong ''Heroes of Jin Yong'' (), first published in 1996, is a tactical role-playing game based on the storyline and characters in Jin Yong's Wuxia novels, developed by Heluo Studio (later known as Oriental Algorithm System). In the game, the player tak ...
'', an RPG based on characters in Jin Yong's novels; ''
Dragon Oath ''Dragon Oath'', also known as ''Tian Long Ba Bu'' (abbreviation: ''TLBB'') in China, is a free-to-play MMORPG developed and published by Changyou.com and Sohu and launched in May 2007. The game's story is based on the novel ''Demi-Gods and Semi- ...
'', an MMORPG inspired by Jin Yong's ''
Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils ''Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils'' is a wuxia novel by Jin Yong (Louis Cha). It was first serialised concurrently from 3 September 1963 to 27 May 1966 in the newspapers ''Ming Pao'' in Hong Kong and ''Nanyang Siang Pau'' in Singapore. It has been ...
''; and ''
Martial Kingdoms ''Martial Kingdoms'' () is a 2003 Taiwanese Single-player video game, single-player strategy video game developed by T-Time Technology.
'', a
strategy game A strategy game or strategic game is a game (e.g. a board game) in which the players' uncoerced, and often autonomous, decision-making skills have a high significance in determining the outcome. Almost all strategy games require internal decisi ...
featuring several martial arts sects which commonly appear in wuxia fiction.


See also

*
List of organisations in wuxia fiction The following is an incomplete list of organisations featured in works of ''wuxia'' fiction. The organisations are classified under the ''wuxia'' novels in which they appear in. Works of Jin Yong * '' Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils'' ** Beggar ...
*
Martial arts film Martial arts films are a subgenre of action films that feature numerous martial arts combat between characters. These combats are usually the films' primary appeal and entertainment value, and often are a method of storytelling and character expres ...
* Sword and sorcery – a similar western fantasy genre *
Xianxia ''Xianxia'' ( zh, s=, t=仙俠), directly translated to 'immortal heroes', is a genre of Chinese fantasy heavily inspired by Taoism and influenced by Chinese mythology, Chan Buddhism, Chinese martial arts, traditional Chinese medicine, Chinese ...
– a subgenre of wuxia novel *
Zhou Tong (archer) Zhou Tong ( and 周侗; pinyin: Zhōu Tóng) (died late 1121 CE) was the archery teacher and second military arts tutor of famous Song dynasty general Yue Fei. Originally a local hero from Henan, he was hired to continue Yue Fei's military train ...
* – ancient Chinese-style costume, typically used in and


References


Further reading

* Jenner, WJF
"Tough Guys, Mateship and Honour: Another Chinese Tradition"
''East Asian History'' 12 (1996): 1–34. * Liu, Petrus. ''Stateless Subjects: Chinese Martial Arts Fiction and Postcolonial History''. Ithaca: Cornell University East Asia Series. () * McCloud, Aaron Matthew Gordon (2010). ''Papercuts: The Literary and the Martial in the Genre of Wuxia Fiction''. Thesis (B.A.). Reed College. . * 汪涌豪 《中国游侠史》 上海:上海文化出版社,1994 ang, Yonghao (1994): "History of Chinese Knight-errantry". Shanghai: Shanghai Wenhua Chubanshe .


External links

* Early silent wuxia film with English subtitles
''Woman Warrior White Rose'' (1929)
* Early silent wuxia film with English subtitles
''Red Heroine'' (1929)
* Early silent wuxia film with English subtitles
''Woman Warrior of the Wild River 6: Rumble at Deerhorn Gully'' (1930)
* Early musical wuxia film with English subtitles
''Hua Mu Lan'' (1939)


by David Bordwell—An article about wuxia films
Wuxia, sztylety i wielka miłość. O filmie "Dom Latających Sztyletów"


{{Fantasy fiction Chinese literary genres Chinese martial arts terminology Chinese warriors Chinese words and phrases Fantasy genres Film genres Television genres