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Women in law describes the role played by women in the
legal profession Legal profession is a profession in which legal professionals study, develop and apply law. Usually, there is a requirement for someone choosing a career in law to first pass a bar examination after obtaining a law degree or some other form of l ...
and related occupations, which includes
lawyer A lawyer is a person who is qualified to offer advice about the law, draft legal documents, or represent individuals in legal matters. The exact nature of a lawyer's work varies depending on the legal jurisdiction and the legal system, as w ...
s (also called
barrister A barrister is a type of lawyer in common law jurisdiction (area), jurisdictions. Barristers mostly specialise in courtroom advocacy and litigation. Their tasks include arguing cases in courts and tribunals, drafting legal pleadings, jurisprud ...
s,
advocate An advocate is a professional in the field of law. List of country legal systems, Different countries and legal systems use the term with somewhat differing meanings. The broad equivalent in many English law–based jurisdictions could be a ba ...
s,
solicitor A solicitor is a lawyer who traditionally deals with most of the legal matters in some jurisdictions. A person must have legally defined qualifications, which vary from one jurisdiction to another, to be described as a solicitor and enabled to p ...
s, attorneys or legal counselors),
paralegal A paralegal, also known as a legal assistant or paralegal specialist, is a legal professional who performs tasks that require knowledge of legal concepts but not the full expertise of a lawyer with an admission to practice law. The market for p ...
s,
prosecutor A prosecutor is a legal representative of the prosecution in states with either the adversarial system, which is adopted in common law, or inquisitorial system, which is adopted in Civil law (legal system), civil law. The prosecution is the ...
s (also called
District Attorney In the United States, a district attorney (DA), county attorney, county prosecutor, state attorney, state's attorney, prosecuting attorney, commonwealth's attorney, or solicitor is the chief prosecutor or chief law enforcement officer represen ...
s or
Crown Prosecutor Crown prosecutor is the title given in a number of jurisdictions to the state prosecutor, the legal party responsible for presenting the case against an individual in a criminal trial. The title is commonly used in Commonwealth realms. Examples * ...
s),
judge A judge is a person who wiktionary:preside, presides over court proceedings, either alone or as a part of a judicial panel. In an adversarial system, the judge hears all the witnesses and any other Evidence (law), evidence presented by the barris ...
s, legal scholars (including feminist legal theorists), law professors and
law school A law school (also known as a law centre/center, college of law, or faculty of law) is an institution, professional school, or department of a college or university specializing in legal education, usually involved as part of a process for b ...
deans.


United States representation

The
ABA ABA may refer to: Aviation * AB Aerotransport, former Scandinavian airline * IATA airport code for Abakan International Airport in Republic of Khakassia, Russia Businesses and organizations Broadcasting * Alabama Broadcasters Association, Uni ...
reported that in 2014, women made up 34% of the legal profession and men made up 66%. In private practice law firms, women make up 20.2% of partners, 17% of equity partners and 4% of managing partners in the 200 biggest law firms. At the junior level of the profession, women make up 44.8% of associates and 45.3% of summer associates. In 2014 in
Fortune 500 The ''Fortune'' 500 is an annual list compiled and published by ''Fortune (magazine), Fortune'' magazine that ranks 500 of the largest United States Joint-stock company#Closely held corporations and publicly traded corporations, corporations by ...
corporations, 21% of the
general counsel A general counsel, also known as chief counsel or chief legal officer (CLO), is the chief in-house lawyer for a company or a governmental department. In a company, the person holding the position typically reports directly to the CEO, and their ...
s were women and 79% were men. Of these 21% of women general counsels, 81.9% were Caucasian, 10.5% were African-American, 5.7% were Hispanic, 1.9% were Asian-American/Pacific Islanders, and 0% were Middle Eastern. In 2009, women were 21.6% of law school Deans, 45.7% of Associate, Vice-Deans or Deputy Deans and 66.2% of Assistant Deans. Women have better representation on law school
law review A law review or law journal is a scholarly journal or publication that focuses on legal issues. A law review is a type of legal periodical. Law reviews are a source of research, imbedded with analyzed and referenced legal topics; they also provide ...
s. In the top 50 schools as ranked by ''US World and News Reports'' in 2012–2013, women made up 46% of leadership positions and 38% of editor-in-chief positions. In 2012, women held 27.1% of all federal and state judge positions, while men held 73.9%. In 2014, three of nine Supreme Court justices were women (33%), 33% of Circuit Court of Appeals judges and 24% of federal court judges. Women held 27% of all state judge positions. During the 2012–2013 academic year, women made up 47% of
Juris Doctor A Juris Doctor, Doctor of Jurisprudence, or Doctor of Law (JD) is a graduate-entry professional degree that primarily prepares individuals to practice law. In the United States and the Philippines, it is the only qualifying law degree. Other j ...
(JD) students, people of color made up 25.8% of JD students. In 2009, in the U.S, women made up 20.6% of law school deans. In the U.S. in 2014, 32.9% of all lawyers were women. 44.8% of law firm associates were women in 2013. In the 50 "best law firms for women" in the U.S., "19% of the equity partners were women, 29% of the non-equity partners were women, and 42% of... counsels were women. A survey indicates that 96% of U.S. law firms state that their highest paid partner is male. "Only 24.1% of all federal judgeships were held by women, and only 27.5% of state judgeships were held by women." Women lawyers' salaries were "83% of men lawyers' salaries in 2014". In the U.S., while women made up 34% of the legal profession in 2014, women are underrepresented in senior positions in all areas of the profession. There has been an increase in women in the law field from the 1970s to 2010, but the increase has been seen in entry-level jobs. In 2020, 37% of lawyers were female.
Women of color The term "person of color" (: people of color or persons of color; abbreviated POC) is used to describe any person who is not considered "white". In its current meaning, the term originated in, and is associated with, the United States. From th ...
are even more underrepresented in the legal profession. In private practice law firms, women make up just 4% of managing partners in the 200 biggest law firms. In 2014 in
Fortune 500 The ''Fortune'' 500 is an annual list compiled and published by ''Fortune (magazine), Fortune'' magazine that ranks 500 of the largest United States Joint-stock company#Closely held corporations and publicly traded corporations, corporations by ...
corporations, 21% of the
general counsel A general counsel, also known as chief counsel or chief legal officer (CLO), is the chief in-house lawyer for a company or a governmental department. In a company, the person holding the position typically reports directly to the CEO, and their ...
s were women, of which only 10.5% were African-American, 5.7% were Hispanic, 1.9% were Asian-American/Pacific Islanders, and 0% were Middle Eastern. In 2009, 21.6% of law school Deans were women. Women held 27.1% of all federal and state judge positions in 2012. In the U.S., " men of color were more likely than any other group to experience exclusion from other employees, racial and gender stereotyping." There are few women law school deans; the list includes
Joan Mahoney Joan Mahoney (born 1943) is a legal scholar and former dean of two law schools. She served as Dean at Wayne State University Law School in Detroit, Michigan, from 1998 to 2003, the first woman law school dean in Michigan and one of the very few w ...
,
Barbara Aronstein Black Barbara Aronstein Black (born May 6, 1933) is an American legal scholar. She was the first woman to serve as dean of an Ivy League law school. when she became Dean of Columbia Law School in 1986. Black is the George Wellwood Murray Professor of L ...
at
Columbia Law School Columbia Law School (CLS) is the Law school in the United States, law school of Columbia University, a Private university, private Ivy League university in New York City. The school was founded in 1858 as the Columbia College Law School. The un ...
,
Elena Kagan Elena Kagan ( ; born April 28, 1960) is an American lawyer who serves as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. She was Elena Kagan Supreme Court nomination ...
at
Harvard Law School Harvard Law School (HLS) is the law school of Harvard University, a Private university, private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1817, Harvard Law School is the oldest law school in continuous operation in the United ...
, Kathleen Sullivan at
Stanford Law School Stanford Law School (SLS) is the Law school in the United States, law school of Stanford University, a Private university, private research university near Palo Alto, California. Established in 1893, Stanford Law had an acceptance rate of 6.28% i ...
, Kathleen Boonzang at Seton Hall Law, and the Hon. Kristin Booth Glenn and Michelle J. Anderson at the
City University of New York School of Law A city is a human settlement of a substantial size. The term "city" has different meanings around the world and in some places the settlement can be very small. Even where the term is limited to larger settlements, there is no universally agree ...
. In 2023, women became the majority among law firm associates and 28% of all U.S. law firm partners were women, according to the National Association for Law Placement (NALP).


Women of color

A 2019 survey of diversity at 232 law firms show that women of color and black women specifically continue to be significantly underrepresented, making up 8.57% and 1.73% of all attorneys, respectively. Law firms are overwhelmingly white and male, despite efforts to recruit people of color from prestigious institutions.


Representation

NALP found that every year since 2009 there has been a decline of African-American associates—"from 4.66 percent to 3.95 percent." According to a November 2015 NALP press release, at just 2.55 percent of partners, minority women remain the most underrepresented group at partnership level.


Treatment

A 2008 survey by the National Association of Women Lawyers (NAWL) found that women of color view their workplace as racially/ethnically stereotypical and exclusionary as a result. Women of color also felt that law firms were not taking enough action to increase diversity, and that when actions were taken, they were not executed effectively. The ABA Commission on Women in the Profession released a report which was a culmination of a study meant to address the decline of women of color in the legal profession. In the study, women of color were given the opportunity to express concern over the negative effects they faced in the workplace and how those effects carried into their personal life. Women of color reported feelings of exclusion, isolation, and as though they were receiving more unwanted critical attention than their counterparts. The ABA Commission on Women in the Profession when looking at reports on the treatment of women of color in the legal profession were disappointed with the patterns they noticed which led the ABA Commission on Women in the Profession to undertake their own research in 2003, the Women of Color Research Initiative. In both law firms and corporate legal departments the findings were that women of color "receive less compensation than men and white women; are denied equal access to significant assignments, mentoring and sponsorship opportunities; receive fewer promotions; and have the highest rate of attrition." There is a ripple effect within the treatment of women of color. Women of color are put at a disadvantage early on making "the ultimate result that women of color miss opportunities to get better work assignments, more client contact, and more billable hours." Women of color's treatment within the legal profession and their feelings about this treatment have affected the retention of women of color in the legal profession. Women of color leave law firms at a high rate, "nearly 75 percent leave by their fifth year, and nearly 86 percent leave before their seventh year."


Strategy

The ABA Commission on Women in the Profession released a report aimed at identifying challenges faced by women of color in law firms and found that "to overcome systemic discrimination against women of color, firms must recognize that the experiences of women of color are different from those of other groups; implementing changes to reflect this difference is necessary for retention. Firms and corporations must initiate active mentorship programs and encourage organization-wide discussions about issues concerning women of color, and constructive feedback is required." After the release of this report, several law firms have attempted the recommendations set forth by the report. Law firms began initiatives that focus on recruiting women of color as well as ensuring the retention of women of color as well. Recruiting of minority women has been increased through law firms finding summer associates by doing interviews "at the Southeast Minority Career Fair, MCCA/Vault Career Fair, Specialty Bar Association, Lavender Law Career Fair, and at schools such as Howard University School of Law and North Carolina Central School of Law."


Canada representation

In 2010 in Canada, "there were 22,261 practicing women lawyers and 37,617 practicing men lawyers." Canadian studies show that "50% of lawyers said they felt their firms were doing "poorly" or "very poorly" in their provision of flexible work arrangements." More women lawyers found it "difficult to manage the demands of work and personal/family life" than men, with 75% of women reporting these challenges versus 66% of men associates. A 2010 report about Ontario lawyers from 1971 to 2006 indicates that "...racialized women accounted for 16% of all lawyers under 30, compared to 5% of lawyers 30 and older in 2006. Visible minority lawyers accounted for 11.5% of all lawyers in 2006. Aboriginal lawyers accounted for 1.0% of all lawyers in 2006. As well, "...
racialized Racialization or ethnicization is a sociological concept used to describe the intent and processes by which ethnic or racial identities are systematically constructed within a society. Constructs for racialization are centered on erroneous gene ...
women accounted for 16% of all lawyers under 30" in 2006 in Ontario and women Aboriginal lawyers accounted for 1%.


Middle East and North Africa (MENA) representation

In 2010, a study found the estimated proportion of female lawyers in 210 countries. The study included Algeria (28%), Bahrain (27%), Egypt (26%), Iran (30%), Iraq (28%), Israel (43%), Jordan (33%), Kuwait (30%), Lebanon (29%), Morocco (22%), Oman (25%), Palestine (26%), Qatar (29%), Saudi Arabia (31%), Syria (25%), Turkey (35%), United Arab Emirates (28%), and Yemen (22%). Lawyers and law professors in the Middle East believe the beginning of the 21st century allowed for an increased interest in the field of law, whereas some researchers believe part of the increase is due to the 2011
Arab Spring The Arab Spring () was a series of Nonviolent resistance, anti-government protests, Rebellion, uprisings, and Insurgency, armed rebellions that spread across much of the Arab world in the early 2010s. It began Tunisian revolution, in Tunisia ...
revolts. Researcher Rania Maktabi noticed that compared to other nations in MENA, women's issues in Morocco, Lebanon and Kuwait have been addressed less violently and also have the highest rates of female employment in the region. Female lawyers in these three nations tackle the patriarchal legal system by introducing reforms in family law, criminal law, and nationality law. Maktabi argues in her research that the increased number of female lawyers involved in women's legal issues in Morocco, Lebanon, and Kuwait has a direct impact on the strengthening of women's rights in those states.


Organizations


Center for Women in Law (US)

The
Center for Women in Law The Center for Women in Law is an institute at the University of Texas School of Law. The mission of the center is to be "a national resource and champion for women lawyers, generating lasting change within the legal profession Legal profession ...
is a U.S. organization set up and funded by women, says it is "devoted to the success of the entire spectrum of women in law ... serves as a national resource to convene leaders, generate ideas, and lead change". It combines theory with practice, addressing issues facing individuals and the profession as a whole. The Center is a Vision 2020 National Ally. The Center was founded in 2008 by a group of women, many of whom were alumnae of
The University of Texas School of Law The University of Texas School of Law (Texas Law) is the law school of the University of Texas at Austin, a public research university in Austin, Texas. According to Texas Law’s ABA disclosures, 87.20% of the Class of 2022 obtained full-time ...
, and many of whom graduated from law school in earlier decades when it was not common for women to pursue law as a career. The group began discussing the issues faced by women lawyers and became determined to understand fully and address effectively the underlying causes of the barriers to advancement faced by women lawyers. The Austin Manifesto calls for specific, concrete steps to tackle the obstacles facing women in the legal profession today. The center holds summits and meetings on issues affecting women in the legal profession.


National Women's Law Center (US)

The
National Women's Law Center The National Women's Law Center (NWLC) is a United States non-profit organization founded by Marcia Greenberger in 1972 and based in Washington, D.C. The Center advocates for women's rights and LGBTQ rights through litigation, policy, and cultur ...
(NWLC) is a
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
non-profit organization A nonprofit organization (NPO), also known as a nonbusiness entity, nonprofit institution, not-for-profit organization, or simply a nonprofit, is a non-governmental (private) legal entity organized and operated for a collective, public, or so ...
founded in 1972 and based in Washington, D.C. The Center advocates for women's rights through litigation and policy initiatives. It began when female administrative staff and law students at the
Center for Law and Social Policy The Center for Law and Social Policy (CLASP) is a liberal organization, based in Washington, D.C., that engages in anti-poverty advocacy. Overview The National Women's Law Center was established in 1972 as a project of CLASP.   Alan ...
demanded that their pay be improved, that the center hire female lawyers, that they no longer be expected to serve coffee, and that the center create a women's program.
Marcia Greenberger Marcia D. Greenberger is an American women's rights attorney. She received her B.A. with honors and J.D. cum laude from the University of Pennsylvania, and then worked as a lawyer with the Washington, D.C., firm of Caplin and Drysdale. She co-fou ...
was hired in 1972 to start the program and
Nancy Duff Campbell ''For the British poet, non-fiction writer, and publisher of artist's books, see Nancy Campbell.'' Nancy Duff Campbell is an American lawyer and a founder and co-president emerita of the National Women's Law Center. Campbell has focused on wom ...
joined her in 1978. In 1981, the two decided to turn the program into the separate National Women's Law Center.


Women's Legal Education and Action Fund (Canada)

Women's Legal Education and Action Fund, referred to by the
acronym An acronym is a type of abbreviation consisting of a phrase whose only pronounced elements are the initial letters or initial sounds of words inside that phrase. Acronyms are often spelled with the initial Letter (alphabet), letter of each wor ...
LEAF, is the "...only national organization in Canada that exists to ensure the equality rights of women and girls under the law.". Established on April 19, 1985, LEAF was formed in response to the enactment of
Section 15 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms Section 15 of the ''Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms'' contains guaranteed Social equality, equality rights. As part of the Constitution of Canada, the section prohibits certain forms of discrimination perpetrated by the governments of Can ...
to ensure that there was fair and unbiased interpretation of women's Charter rights by the courts. LEAF performs legal research and intervenes in
appellate In law, an appeal is the process in which Legal case, cases are reviewed by a higher authority, where parties request a formal change to an official decision. Appeals function both as a process for error correction as well as a process of cla ...
and
Supreme Court of Canada The Supreme Court of Canada (SCC; , ) is the highest court in the judicial system of Canada. It comprises nine justices, whose decisions are the ultimate application of Canadian law, and grants permission to between 40 and 75 litigants eac ...
cases on women's issues. LEAF has been an intervener in many significant decisions of the Supreme Court of Canada, particularly cases involving section 15 Charter challenges. In addition to its legal work, LEAF also organizes speaking engagements and projects that allow lawyers interested in women's rights to educate one another, to educate the public, and to create collective responses to legal issues related to women's equality. LEAF was created by founding mother
Doris Anderson Doris Hilda Anderson, (November 10, 1921 – March 2, 2007) was a Canadian author, journalist and women's rights activist. She is best known as the editor of the women's magazine ''Chatelaine'', mixing traditional content (recipes, décor) w ...
and other women.


Women in Law and Litigation (India)

Women in Law and Litigation Women in Law and Litigation (WILL) was formed by women lawyers, judges and legal professionals to deal with gender discrimination faced by women in the field of law. The litigating public prefers to deal with male lawyers than women lawyers against ...
(WILL) was formed in India in 2014 by women lawyers, judges and legal professionals to deal with
gender discrimination Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on one's sex or gender. Sexism can affect anyone, but primarily affects women and girls. It has been linked to gender roles and stereotypes, and may include the belief that one sex or gender is in ...
faced by women in the field of law. The litigating public prefers to deal with male lawyers. The society was formed under the supervision of
Supreme Court of India The Supreme Court of India is the supreme judiciary of India, judicial authority and the supreme court, highest court of the Republic of India. It is the final Appellate court, court of appeal for all civil and criminal cases in India. It also ...
and the justice of Supreme Court of India,
Ranjana Desai Ranjana Prakash Desai (born 30 October 1949) is a former judge of the Supreme Court of India and the head of the Delimitation Commission of India. She was previously a public prosecutor for the State of Maharashtra, and served as a judge on the ...
. WILL was formed to provide professional support, advocacy skills, and a platform for discussion on ways for development of women lawyers. Justice Hima Kohli of the High Court (Delhi) defined WILL as the society would be a "way to give back to the system for senior lawyers and legal practitioners who have "reached high positions".


Feminist perspectives

Feminist legal theory Feminist legal theory, also known as feminist jurisprudence, is based on the belief that the law has been fundamental in women's historical subordination. Feminist jurisprudence the philosophy of law is based on the political, economic, and socia ...
, also known as feminist
jurisprudence Jurisprudence, also known as theory of law or philosophy of law, is the examination in a general perspective of what law is and what it ought to be. It investigates issues such as the definition of law; legal validity; legal norms and values ...
, is based on the belief that the law has been fundamental in women's historical subordination. The project of feminist
legal theory Jurisprudence, also known as theory of law or philosophy of law, is the examination in a general perspective of what law is and what it ought to be. It investigates issues such as the definition of law; legal validity; legal norms and values ...
is twofold. First, feminist jurisprudence seeks to explain ways in which the law played a role in women's former subordinate status. Second, it is dedicated to changing women's status through a reworking of the law and its approach to
gender Gender is the range of social, psychological, cultural, and behavioral aspects of being a man (or boy), woman (or girl), or third gender. Although gender often corresponds to sex, a transgender person may identify with a gender other tha ...
. In 1984 Martha Fineman founded the Feminism and Legal Theory Project at the
University of Wisconsin Law School The University of Wisconsin Law School is the Law school in the United States, law school of the University of Wisconsin–Madison, a Public university, public research university in Madison, Wisconsin. Founded in 1868, the school is guided by a ...
to explore the relationships between
feminist theory Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical, fictional, or Philosophy, philosophical discourse. It aims to understand the nature of gender inequality. It examines women's and men's Gender role, social roles, experiences, intere ...
, practice, and law, which has been instrumental in the development of feminist legal theory. The liberal model of
equality under the law Equality before the law, also known as equality under the law, equality in the eyes of the law, legal equality, or legal egalitarianism, is the principle that all people must be equally protected by the law. The principle requires a systematic ru ...
operates from within the liberal legal paradigm and generally embraces liberal values and the rights-based approach to law, though it takes issue with how the liberal framework has operated in practice. The difference model emphasizes the significance of
gender differences Sex differences in humans have been studied in a variety of fields. Sex determination generally occurs by the presence or absence of a Y chromosome in the 23rd pair of chromosomes in the human genome. ''Phenotypic sex'' refers to an individua ...
and holds that these differences should not be obscured by the law, but should be taken into account by it. The dominance model views the legal system as a mechanism for the perpetuation of male dominance. Feminists from the
postmodern Postmodernism encompasses a variety of artistic, cultural, and philosophical movements that claim to mark a break from modernism. They have in common the conviction that it is no longer possible to rely upon previous ways of depicting the wo ...
camp have deconstructed the notions of objectivity and neutrality, claiming that every perspective is socially situated. See
equality feminism Equality feminism is a subset of the overall feminism movement and more specifically of the liberal feminist tradition that focuses on the basic similarities between men and women, and whose ultimate goal is the equality of both genders in all d ...
,
difference feminism Difference feminism is a term developed during the equality-versus-difference debate in American feminism to describe the view that men and women are different, but that no value judgment can be placed upon them and both sexes have equal moral s ...
,
radical feminism Radical feminism is a perspective within feminism that calls for a radical re-ordering of society in which male supremacy is eliminated in all social and economic contexts, while recognizing that women's experiences are also affected by other ...
, and
postmodern feminism Postmodern feminism is a branch of feminism that opposes a universal female subject. Drawing on postmodern philosophy, postmodern feminism questions traditional ideas about gender, identity, and power, while emphasizing the socially construct ...
for context. Notable scholars include: *
Ruth Bader Ginsburg Joan Ruth Bader Ginsburg ( ; Bader; March 15, 1933 – September 18, 2020) was an American lawyer and jurist who served as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1993 until Death and state funeral of Ruth Bader ...
*
Catharine MacKinnon Catharine Alice MacKinnon (born October 7, 1946) is an American feminist legal scholar, activist, and author. She is the Elizabeth A. Long Professor of Law at the University of Michigan Law School, where she has been tenured since 1990, and the J ...
* Martha Fineman * Mari Matsuda


Feminist philosophy of law

Feminist
philosophy of law Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior, with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a science and as the ar ...
"...identifies the pervasive influence of patriarchy on legal structures, demonstrates its effects on the material condition of women and girls, and develops reforms to correct gender injustice, exploitation, or restriction." Feminist philosophy of law uses approaches drawn from "...
feminist epistemology Feminist epistemology is an examination of epistemology from a feminist standpoint. Overview Feminist epistemology claims that ethical and political values are important in shaping epistemic practices, and interpretations of evidence. Feminist ...
, relational metaphysics,
feminist political theory Feminist political theory is an area of philosophy that focuses on understanding and critiquing the way political philosophy is usually construed and on articulating how political theory might be reconstructed in a way that advances feminist concer ...
, and other developments in
feminist philosophy Feminist philosophy is an approach to philosophy from a feminist perspective and also the employment of philosophical methods to feminist topics and questions. Feminist philosophy involves both reinterpreting philosophical texts and methods in ...
to understand how legal institutions enforce dominant masculinist norms." In the contemporary era, feminist philosophy of law also takes account of approaches such as "... human rights theory,
postcolonial theory Postcolonialism (also post-colonial theory) is the critical academic study of the cultural, political and economic consequences of colonialism and imperialism, focusing on the impact of human control and exploitation of colonized people and th ...
, critical legal studies, critical
race theory Scientific racism, sometimes termed biological racism, is the pseudoscience, pseudoscientific belief that the Human, human species is divided into biologically distinct taxa called "race (human categorization), races", and that empirical evi ...
,
queer theory Queer theory is a field of post-structuralist critical theory that emerged in the early 1990s out of queer studies (formerly often known as gay and lesbian studies) and women's studies. The term "queer theory" is broadly associated with the study a ...
, and
disability studies Disability studies is an academic discipline that examines the meaning, nature, and consequences of disability. Initially, the field focused on the division between "impairment" and "disability", where impairment was an impairment of an individual ...
." As with feminism in general, there are many subtypes of feminist philosophy of law, including "...radical, socialist and Marxist, relational, cultural, postmodern, dominance, difference, pragmatist, and liberal approaches." Feminist philosophers of law argue that "... law makes
systemic bias Systemic bias is the inherent tendency of a process to support particular outcomes. The term generally refers to human systems such as institutions. Systemic bias is related to and overlaps conceptually with institutional bias and structural bi ...
(as opposed to personal biases of particular individuals) invisible, normal, entrenched, and thus difficult to identify and to oppose." Feminist philosophers of law view laws as "...patriarchal, reflecting ancient and almost universal presumptions of
gender inequality Gender inequality is the social phenomenon in which people are not treated equally on the basis of gender. This inequality can be caused by gender discrimination or sexism. The treatment may arise from distinctions regarding biology, psychology ...
." Some of the legal issues analyzed by feminist philosophers of law include
marriage Marriage, also called matrimony or wedlock, is a culturally and often legally recognised union between people called spouses. It establishes rights and obligations between them, as well as between them and their children (if any), and b ...
,
reproductive rights Reproductive rights are legal rights and freedoms relating to human reproduction, reproduction and reproductive health that vary amongst countries around the world. The World Health Organization defines reproductive rights: Reproductive rights ...
(e.g., pertaining to laws on
abortion Abortion is the early termination of a pregnancy by removal or expulsion of an embryo or fetus. Abortions that occur without intervention are known as miscarriages or "spontaneous abortions", and occur in roughly 30–40% of all pregnan ...
), the "commodification of the body" (as in
sex work Sex work is "the exchange of sexual services, performances, or products for material compensation. It includes activities of direct physical contact between buyers and sellers as well as indirect sexual stimulation". Sex work only refers to volun ...
) and
violence against women Violence against women (VAW), also known as gender-based violence (GBV) or sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV), violent, violence primarily committed by Man, men or boys against woman, women or girls. Such violence is often considered hat ...
.


History


United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, the first woman to pass a law degree was Eliza Orme, who graduated from
University College London University College London (Trade name, branded as UCL) is a Public university, public research university in London, England. It is a Member institutions of the University of London, member institution of the Federal university, federal Uni ...
in 1888. She was not allowed to qualify to practice as either a solicitor or a barrister. It was not until 1919, with the passage of the
Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act 1919 Sex is the biological trait that determines whether a sexual reproduction, sexually reproducing organism produces male or female gametes. During sexual reproduction, a male and a female gamete fuse to form a zygote, which develops into an o ...
that women could enter the legal profession. This had been challenged in 1914 in a case, ''
Bebb v Law Society Bebb is a surname. Notable people with the surname include: * Charles Bebb (1856–1942), leading Seattle architect * Dewi Bebb (1936–1996), Welsh rugby union player who won thirty four caps for Wales as a winger * Guto Bebb (born 1969), former W ...
'', in which the Court of Appeal found that women did not fall within the legal definition of "persons" and so could not become lawyers. The 1919 act also allowed women to serve on juries for the first time.


Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia, along with several other Gulf countries, has decided to put an emphasis on promoting jobs rather than oil production to help their economy.Alselaimi, Raneem, and Alawiya Allui. "Female Employment in Saudi Arabia: Legislative Encouragements and Socio-cultural Support." In ''Int'l Conference Proceedings'', p. 88. 2018. The Saudi government took initiatives to boost female participation in the labor force. Historically, women were not encouraged to participate in professional academic concentrations, including law. However, in 2004, the government allowed law degree programs to be studied in women's universities. Four years later, the first female students graduated with law degrees, but could not practice in courts, which consisted of an all-male judiciary. Women with law degrees could only work as "legal consultants," which barred them from representing clients. In 2011, amongst the political uprising climate in the Middle East, female lawyers pushed a social media campaign called ''I am a female lawyer." The campaign brought attention to the discriminatory treatment of women who were not allowed to practice law in their own countries, despite their degrees. In October 2012, King Abdullah announced his acceptance of a petition by a group of female law graduates. The 3,000 signatures permitted the registration by women for law licenses. However, the Ministry of Justice acted otherwise and refused to process registration applications from female law graduates. In April 2013, the Justice Ministry allowed a King Abdulaziz University graduate from Jeddah, Arwa al-Hujaili, to become the first female legal trainee in Saudi Arabia. As a trainee, she was allowed to practice law, similar to a "legal consultant," but given a full license after three years of apprenticeship. In October 2013, a new policy passed allowing all women to seek a legal license to practice law after receiving a university degree in law and three years of apprenticeship. On October 6, 2013, Bayan Mahmoud Al-Zahran received the first license from the Justice Ministry, thus becoming the first licensed female lawyer in Saudi Arabia. Zahran began her legal career with dedication to domestic violence issues, then focused on criminal law. The following month, Zahran represented a client, the first time for a Saudi woman, amongst the General Court in Jidda. In January 2014, Zahran opened the first female law firm. Her firm focuses on women's issues. As of November 2015, thousands of Saudi women have degrees in law, but only sixty-seven are licensed to practice. In 2017, Saudi female students attended universities at a gross enrollment rate higher than Saudi male students, at 97.5% and 41.6%, respectively.


Notable individuals


United States

* Mary Bartelme (1866 – 1954) was called by ''The New York Times'' in 1913, "America's only woman judge". She was internationally known for her pioneering work in the creation and administration of
juvenile court Juvenile court, also known as young offender's court or children's court, is a tribunal having special authority to pass judgements for crimes committed by children who have not attained the age of majority. In most modern legal systems, chi ...
. She also served as vice chair of the suffragist
National Woman's Party The National Woman's Party (NWP) was an American women's political organization formed in 1916 to fight for women's suffrage. After achieving this goal with the 1920 adoption of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, the NWP ...
. *
Annette Abbott Adams Annette Abbott Adams (March 12, 1877 – October 26, 1956) was an American lawyer and judge. She was the first woman to be the United States Assistant Attorney General, Assistant Attorney General in the United States. Early life and education Bo ...
(1877–1956) was an American lawyer and judge who was the first woman to be the
Assistant Attorney General Many of the divisions and offices of the United States Department of Justice (DOJ) are headed by an assistant attorney general. The president of the United States appoints individuals to the position of assistant attorney general with the adv ...
in the United States. She obtained her law degree in 1912. Before beginning her legal career, she was one of the first female school principals in California. In 1950, she served by special assignment on a case in the
California Supreme Court The Supreme Court of California is the highest and final court of appeals in the courts of the U.S. state of California. It is headquartered in San Francisco at the Earl Warren Building, but it regularly holds sessions in Los Angeles and Sac ...
, becoming the first woman to sit on that court. * Florence E. Allen (1884 – 1966) was an American judge who was the first woman to serve on a state
supreme court In most legal jurisdictions, a supreme court, also known as a court of last resort, apex court, high (or final) court of appeal, and court of final appeal, is the highest court within the hierarchy of courts. Broadly speaking, the decisions of ...
and one of the first two women to serve as a
United States federal judge In the United States, a federal judge is a judge who serves on a court established under Article Three of the U.S. Constitution. Often called "Article III judges", federal judges include the chief justice and associate justices of the U.S. S ...
. She finished a master's degree in
political science Political science is the scientific study of politics. It is a social science dealing with systems of governance and Power (social and political), power, and the analysis of political activities, political philosophy, political thought, polit ...
from Western Reserve in 1908. and took courses in
constitutional law Constitutional law is a body of law which defines the role, powers, and structure of different entities within a state, namely, the executive, the parliament or legislature, and the judiciary; as well as the basic rights of citizens and, in ...
. She wanted to do a law degree, but at that time, Western Reserve's law school did not admit women. Allen attended the law school at the
University of Chicago The University of Chicago (UChicago, Chicago, or UChi) is a Private university, private research university in Chicago, Illinois, United States. Its main campus is in the Hyde Park, Chicago, Hyde Park neighborhood on Chicago's South Side, Chic ...
for a year, and then transferred to
New York University New York University (NYU) is a private university, private research university in New York City, New York, United States. Chartered in 1831 by the New York State Legislature, NYU was founded in 1832 by Albert Gallatin as a Nondenominational ...
. In 1913, she got her law degree, graduating with honors. She became interested in politics, and more committed to the cause of women's
suffrage Suffrage, political franchise, or simply franchise is the right to vote in public, political elections and referendums (although the term is sometimes used for any right to vote). In some languages, and occasionally in English, the right to v ...
. She began challenging local laws that limited women's participation in the political process. She argued one case that went all the way to the Ohio Supreme Court. In 1919, she was appointed the assistant prosecuting attorney for Cleveland's
Cuyahoga County Cuyahoga County ( or , see ) is a large urban county located in the northeastern part of the U.S. state of Ohio. The county seat and most populous city is Cleveland. As of the 2020 census, its population was 1,264,817, making it the second ...
. By 1920, she was elected as a Common Pleas judge. In 1922, Allen was elected to the
Ohio Supreme Court The Supreme Court of the State of Ohio is the highest court in the U.S. state of Ohio, with final authority over interpretations of Ohio law and the Ohio Constitution. The court has seven members, a chief justice and six associate justices, ...
. She was appointed to the
United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit The United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit (in case citations, 6th Cir.) is a federal court with appellate jurisdiction over the district courts in the following districts: * Eastern District of Kentucky * Western District of K ...
in 1934, making her one of the first women federal judges. * Sadie Tanner Mossell Alexander (1898 – 1989), was the second
African-American African Americans, also known as Black Americans and formerly also called Afro-Americans, are an American racial and ethnic group that consists of Americans who have total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. ...
woman to receive a Ph.D. in the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
, and the first woman to receive a law degree from the
University of Pennsylvania Law School The University of Pennsylvania Carey Law School (also known as Penn Carey Law, or Penn Law; previously University of Pennsylvania Law School) is the law school of the University of Pennsylvania, a private Ivy League research university in Phi ...
. She was the first African-American woman to practice law in Pennsylvania. She was the first African-American woman appointed as Assistant City Solicitor for the City of Philadelphia. * Helen Elsie Austin (1908–2004) was an American attorney and U.S. foreign service officer who was among the first
African American African Americans, also known as Black Americans and formerly also called Afro-Americans, are an Race and ethnicity in the United States, American racial and ethnic group that consists of Americans who have total or partial ancestry from an ...
s admitted to the practice of law in the United States. She received a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1928 and a
Bachelor of Laws A Bachelor of Laws (; LLB) is an undergraduate law degree offered in most common law countries as the primary law degree and serves as the first professional qualification for legal practitioners. This degree requires the study of core legal subje ...
degree in 1930 from the
University of Cincinnati The University of Cincinnati (UC or Cincinnati, informally Cincy) is a public university, public research university in Cincinnati, Ohio, United States. It was founded in 1819 and had an enrollment of over 53,000 students in 2024, making it the ...
, becoming the first black woman to graduate from the UC Law School. Austin was on the staff of the Rocky Mountain
Law Review A law review or law journal is a scholarly journal or publication that focuses on legal issues. A law review is a type of legal periodical. Law reviews are a source of research, imbedded with analyzed and referenced legal topics; they also provide ...
and of the Cincinnati Law Review. In 1938 she received a
Doctor of Laws A Doctor of Laws (LL.D.) is a doctoral degree in legal studies. The abbreviation LL.D. stands for ''Legum Doctor'', with the double “L” in the abbreviation referring to the early practice in the University of Cambridge to teach both canon law ...
degree from
Wilberforce University Wilberforce University (WU) is a private university in Wilberforce, Ohio. It is one of three historically black universities established before the American Civil War. Founded in 1856 by the Methodist Episcopal Church (MEC), it is named after ...
. She was the first black woman to serve as Assistant Attorney General in Ohio (1937–38) and became legal advisor to the
District of Columbia Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly known as Washington or D.C., is the capital city and Federal district of the United States, federal district of the United States. The city is on the Potomac River, across from ...
government in 1939. *
Elreta Melton Alexander-Ralston Elreta Narcissus Alexander-Ralston ( Melton; March 21, 1919 – March 14, 1998) was an American trial attorney and district court judge in North Carolina. She was the first black woman to become a judge via popular election in the U.S., the first ...
(1919–1998) was a black female American lawyer and judge in North Carolina at a time when there were only a handful of practising female or black lawyers in that state. She was a trial attorney and
District Court Judge District courts are a category of courts which exists in several nations, some call them "small case court" usually as the lowest level of the hierarchy. These courts generally work under a higher court which exercises control over the lower co ...
. She has remained largely unrecognized. She was the first black woman admitted to
Columbia Law School Columbia Law School (CLS) is the Law school in the United States, law school of Columbia University, a Private university, private Ivy League university in New York City. The school was founded in 1858 as the Columbia College Law School. The un ...
in 1943 at the age of twenty-four. In 1947, Alexander became the first black woman to practice law in North Carolina. In 1968, Alexander became the first black judge elected in North Carolina and only the second black woman to be elected as a judge in the United States. *
Bella Abzug Bella Abzug (; née Savitzky; July 24, 1920 – March 31, 1998), nicknamed "Battling Bella", was an American lawyer, politician, social activist, and a leader in the women's movement. In 1971, Abzug joined other leading feminists such as Gloria ...
(1920–1998), nicknamed "Battling Bella", was an American
lawyer A lawyer is a person who is qualified to offer advice about the law, draft legal documents, or represent individuals in legal matters. The exact nature of a lawyer's work varies depending on the legal jurisdiction and the legal system, as w ...
,
U.S. Representative The United States House of Representatives is a chamber of the bicameral United States Congress; it is the lower house, with the U.S. Senate being the upper house. Together, the House and Senate have the authority under Article One of th ...
,
social activist Activism consists of efforts to promote, impede, direct or intervene in social, political, economic or environmental reform with the desire to make Social change, changes in society toward a perceived common good. Forms of activism range from ...
and a leader of the
Women's Movement The feminist movement, also known as the women's movement, refers to a series of social movements and political campaigns for radical and liberal reforms on women's issues created by inequality between men and women. Such issues are women's ...
. In 1971, Abzug joined other leading feminists such as
Gloria Steinem Gloria Marie Steinem ( ; born March 25, 1934) is an American journalist and social movement, social-political activist who emerged as a nationally recognized leader of second-wave feminism in the United States in the late 1960s and early 1970s. ...
and
Betty Friedan Betty Friedan (; February 4, 1921 – February 4, 2006) was an American feminist writer and activist. A leading figure in the women's movement in the United States, her 1963 book '' The Feminine Mystique'' is often credited with sparking the s ...
to found the
National Women's Political Caucus The National Women's Political Caucus (NWPC) is an organization which was founded in 1971 by leaders of the women's liberation movement to promote women's participation in government. The group describes itself as a multi-partisan grassroots or ...
. She was appointed to chair the National Commission on the Observance of
International Women's Year International Women's Year (IWY) was the name given to 1975 by the United Nations. Since that year March 8 has been celebrated as International Women's Day, and the United Nations Decade for Women, from 1976 to 1985, was also established. History ...
and to plan the 1977 National Women's Conference by
President President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) * President (education), a leader of a college or university *President (government title) President may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Film and television *'' Præsident ...
Gerald Ford Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr. (born Leslie Lynch King Jr.; July 14, 1913December 26, 2006) was the 38th president of the United States, serving from 1974 to 1977. A member of the Republican Party (United States), Republican Party, Ford assumed the p ...
and led President Jimmy Carter's commission on women. *
Joan Mahoney Joan Mahoney (born 1943) is a legal scholar and former dean of two law schools. She served as Dean at Wayne State University Law School in Detroit, Michigan, from 1998 to 2003, the first woman law school dean in Michigan and one of the very few w ...
(born 1943) is a legal scholar and former dean of two law schools. She served as Dean at Wayne State University Law School in Detroit, Detroit, Michigan, from 1998 to 2003, the first woman law school dean in Michigan and one of the very few women in the United States to have held the deanship at two different law schools. Prior to her tenure as Dean at Wayne State, she served from 1994 to 1996 as Dean of Western New England College School of Law in Springfield, Massachusetts. (Women law school deans remain a distinct minority; others have included
Barbara Aronstein Black Barbara Aronstein Black (born May 6, 1933) is an American legal scholar. She was the first woman to serve as dean of an Ivy League law school. when she became Dean of Columbia Law School in 1986. Black is the George Wellwood Murray Professor of L ...
at
Columbia Law School Columbia Law School (CLS) is the Law school in the United States, law school of Columbia University, a Private university, private Ivy League university in New York City. The school was founded in 1858 as the Columbia College Law School. The un ...
,
Elena Kagan Elena Kagan ( ; born April 28, 1960) is an American lawyer who serves as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. She was Elena Kagan Supreme Court nomination ...
at
Harvard Law School Harvard Law School (HLS) is the law school of Harvard University, a Private university, private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1817, Harvard Law School is the oldest law school in continuous operation in the United ...
, Kathleen Sullivan at
Stanford Law School Stanford Law School (SLS) is the Law school in the United States, law school of Stanford University, a Private university, private research university near Palo Alto, California. Established in 1893, Stanford Law had an acceptance rate of 6.28% i ...
, and the Hon. Kristin Booth Glenn and Michelle J. Anderson at the
City University of New York School of Law A city is a human settlement of a substantial size. The term "city" has different meanings around the world and in some places the settlement can be very small. Even where the term is limited to larger settlements, there is no universally agree ...
). She received her B.A. and M.A. degrees at the
University of Chicago The University of Chicago (UChicago, Chicago, or UChi) is a Private university, private research university in Chicago, Illinois, United States. Its main campus is in the Hyde Park, Chicago, Hyde Park neighborhood on Chicago's South Side, Chic ...
, attended Wayne State Law School and received her J.D. there, and received a PhD. from Wolfson College, Cambridge, Wolfson College, University of Cambridge in England. A distinguished legal scholar, she has published widely on reproductive rights, constitutional law, legal history, comparative civil liberties, and bioethics. * Linda Addison (lawyer), Linda Addison (born 1951) is an American lawyer, business executive and author. Addison is Managing Partner, U.S. of Norton Rose Fulbright, chairs the U.S. Management Committee, and serves on its Global Executive Committee. ''Crain's New York Business'' named Addison one of the "50 Most Powerful Women in New York" in 2015. She is a founder and Past President of the
Center for Women in Law The Center for Women in Law is an institute at the University of Texas School of Law. The mission of the center is to be "a national resource and champion for women lawyers, generating lasting change within the legal profession Legal profession ...
, and co-chaired the New York State Bar Association's Task Force on the Future of the Legal Profession. * Anita L. Allen (born 1953)date & year of birth, full name according to LCNAF Cataloging in Publication, CIP data is the Henry R. Silverman Professor of Law and professor of philosophy at the
University of Pennsylvania Law School The University of Pennsylvania Carey Law School (also known as Penn Carey Law, or Penn Law; previously University of Pennsylvania Law School) is the law school of the University of Pennsylvania, a private Ivy League research university in Phi ...
. She is also a senior fellow in the bioethics department of the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, a collaborating faculty member in African studies, and an affiliated faculty member in the women's studies program. In 2010 President Barack Obama named Allen to the Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues. She is a Hastings Center Fellow. Allen holds a Bachelor of Arts, B.A. from New College of Florida. Allen received her Master of Arts, M.A. and Doctor of Philosophy, Ph.D. in philosophy from the University of Michigan. Allen was one of the first African-American women to earn a PhD in Philosophy, along with Adrian Piper. She is the first African-American woman to hold both a Juris Doctor, J.D. and Ph.D. in philosophy. Allen received her J.D. from Harvard Law. * Belva A. Lockwood (born 1830) became the first woman allowed to practice law in the U.S. Supreme Court. a year later, she became the first woman to argue a case there. by the 1840s, women began to practice law locally without formal certificates. By the 1900's women lawyers formed a growing community. in 1981, Sandra Day O'Connor became the first female Supreme Court justice. This source has notes of the early women who practiced and became important in the legal profession once it was starting out for them. * Susan B Anthony (born 1820) was deeply involved in several important social causes, including abolition and women's education. She played a key role in campaigning for women's property rights and suffrage in New York. Alongside Elizabeth Candy Santon, they founded the National Women's Suffrage Association in 1869 when the movement split over whether to focus on the federal amendment for women's voting rights or take state-by-state voting rights. She was so influential that the Nineteenth Amendment was often called the "Anthony Amendment" by its supporters. Aside from Susan, her partnership with Elizabeth was important because they are the most closely linked to the women's voting rights campaign.


Canada

At the end of the nineteenth century, Canadian women were barred from professional or jury participation in the legal system–women could not become lawyers, magistrates, judges, jurors, voters or legislators. Clara Brett Martin (1874 – 1923) became the first female lawyer in the British Empire in 1897 after a lengthy debate in which the Law Society of Upper Canada tried to prevent her from joining the legal profession. After graduating with a Bachelor of Arts in 1891, Martin submitted a petition to the Law Society to become a member. Her petition was rejected by the Society after contentious debate, with the Society ruling that only men could be admitted to the practice of law, because the Society's statute stated that only a "person" could become a lawyer. At that time, women were not considered to be "persons" in Canada, from a legal perspective. W. D. Balfour sponsored a bill that provided that the word "person" in the Law Society's statute should be interpreted to include females as well as males. Martin's cause was also supported by prominent women of the day including Emily Stowe and Ishbel Hamilton-Gordon, Marchioness of Aberdeen and Temair, Lady Aberdeen. With the support of the Premier, Oliver Mowat, legislation was passed on April 13, 1892, which permitted the admission of women as solicitors. Helen Kinnear (1894 – 1970) was a Canadians, Canadian
lawyer A lawyer is a person who is qualified to offer advice about the law, draft legal documents, or represent individuals in legal matters. The exact nature of a lawyer's work varies depending on the legal jurisdiction and the legal system, as w ...
who was the first federally appointed woman judge in Canada. She was the first woman in the Commonwealth of Nations, British Commonwealth to be created a King's Counsel and the first in the Commonwealth appointed to a county-court bench and the first female lawyer in Canada to appear as counsel before the Supreme Court in Canada in 1935. Marie-Claire Kirkland-Casgrain (born 1924) is a Quebec lawyer, judge and politician who was the first woman elected to the Legislative Assembly of Quebec, the first woman appointed a Cabinet minister in Quebec, the first woman appointed acting premier, and the first woman judge to serve in the Quebec Provincial Court. Marlys Edwardh Order of Canada, CM (born 1950) is a Canadian litigation and civil rights
lawyer A lawyer is a person who is qualified to offer advice about the law, draft legal documents, or represent individuals in legal matters. The exact nature of a lawyer's work varies depending on the legal jurisdiction and the legal system, as w ...
who was one of the first women to practice criminal law in Canada. Roberta Jamieson Member of the Order of Canada, C.M. is a Canadian lawyer and First Nations in Canada, First Nations activist who was the first Aboriginal woman ever to earn a law degree in Canada, the first non-Parliamentarian to be appointed an ''ex officio'' member of a House of Commons of Canada, House of Commons committee and the first woman appointed as Ontario Ombudsman. Delia Opekokew is a Cree woman from the Canoe Lake First Nation in Saskatchewan, who was the first First Nations in Canada, First Nations lawyer admitted to the Law society, law societies in Ontario and in Saskatchewan as well as the first woman ever to run for the leadership of the Assembly of First Nations. Opekokew graduated from Osgoode Hall in 1977, and was admitted to the Bar of Ontario in 1979 and to the Bar of Saskatchewan in 1983. Beverley McLachlin (born 1943) is the 17th and current List of Chief Justices of the Supreme Court of Canada, chief justice of the
Supreme Court of Canada The Supreme Court of Canada (SCC; , ) is the highest court in the judicial system of Canada. It comprises nine justices, whose decisions are the ultimate application of Canadian law, and grants permission to between 40 and 75 litigants eac ...
, the first woman to hold this position, and the longest-serving chief justice in Canadian history. In her role as chief justice, she also serves as a deputy of the Governor General of Canada. When Governor General of Canada, Governor General Adrienne Clarkson was hospitalized for a cardiac pacemaker operation on July 8, 2005, Chief Justice McLachlin served as the deputy of the Governor General of Canada and performed the duties of the governor general as the Administrator of Canada. In her role as administrator, she gave royal assent to the ''Civil Marriage Act'', effectively legalizing same-sex marriage in Canada. Some Canadian lawyers have become notable for their achievements in politics, including Kim Campbell, Mélanie Joly, Anne McLellan, Rachel Notley and Jody Wilson-Raybould. Notable Canadian legal professionals include: * Louise Arbour (born 1947) was the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, a former justice of the
Supreme Court of Canada The Supreme Court of Canada (SCC; , ) is the highest court in the judicial system of Canada. It comprises nine justices, whose decisions are the ultimate application of Canadian law, and grants permission to between 40 and 75 litigants eac ...
and the Court of Appeal for Ontario and a former Chief Prosecutor of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia and International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, Rwanda. She made history with the indictment of a sitting head of state, Yugoslavian president Slobodan Milošević, as well as the first prosecution of sexual assault under the articles of crimes against humanity. * Kim Campbell (born 1947) is a Canadian politician, diplomat,
lawyer A lawyer is a person who is qualified to offer advice about the law, draft legal documents, or represent individuals in legal matters. The exact nature of a lawyer's work varies depending on the legal jurisdiction and the legal system, as w ...
and writer who served as the List of Prime Ministers of Canada, 19th Prime Minister of Canada, from June 25 to November 4, 1993. Campbell was the List of the first female holders of political offices in the Americas, first, and to date, only female prime minister of Canada. She earned an Bachelor of Laws, LL.B. from the University of British Columbia in 1983. * Catherine Fraser (born 1947) was appointed as Chief Justice of Alberta and Chief Justice of Northwest Territories in 1992. She was named as the Chief Justice of the Nunavut Court of Appeal on March 24, 1999. * Jennifer Stoddart (born 1949) was the sixth Privacy Commissioner of Canada. In 1980 she received a licence in civil law (legal system), civil law from McGill University. As a lawyer she worked to modernize regulations and remove barriers to employment based on gender or cultural differences. She headed the Quebec Commission on Access to Information and held senior positions at the Quebec Human Rights and Youth Rights Commission, the Canadian Human Rights Commission and the Canadian Advisory Council on the Status of Women. * Martha Hall Findlay (born 1959) is a Canadian businesswoman, entrepreneur, lawyer and politician from Toronto, Ontario. She was elected to the House of Commons of Canada as the Liberal Party of Canada's candidate in a Toronto riding. * Beth Symes Queen's University at Kingston, Queen's University alumna is a Canadian lawyer who fought the Canada Revenue Agency (CRA, formerly known as Revenue Canada) all the way to the
Supreme Court of Canada The Supreme Court of Canada (SCC; , ) is the highest court in the judicial system of Canada. It comprises nine justices, whose decisions are the ultimate application of Canadian law, and grants permission to between 40 and 75 litigants eac ...
in order to deduct childcare expenses she incurred to earn income as a partner in her law firm. Symes practised law full-time as a partner in a law firm from 1982 to 1985. During that period she employed a nanny to care for her children, and deducted the wages paid to the nanny as a business expense on her personal income tax return. Revenue Canada initially allowed these deductions, but later disallowed them. Symes objected to the re-assessment, but CRA denied the objection. Symes appealed to the Federal Court (Canada), Federal Court, which ruled that the expenses were valid and legitimate business expenses. The case was appealed to the
Supreme Court of Canada The Supreme Court of Canada (SCC; , ) is the highest court in the judicial system of Canada. It comprises nine justices, whose decisions are the ultimate application of Canadian law, and grants permission to between 40 and 75 litigants eac ...
(SCC), which ruled in Symes v. Canada [1993] that her childcare expenses were ''not'' deductible as business expenses. * Marie Henein is a Canadian
lawyer A lawyer is a person who is qualified to offer advice about the law, draft legal documents, or represent individuals in legal matters. The exact nature of a lawyer's work varies depending on the legal jurisdiction and the legal system, as w ...
. She is a partner of Henein Hutchison LLP, a law firm in Toronto. Henein has developed a reputation in Toronto as one of the most "respected and feared criminal lawyers in the country." The ''National Post'' called her the "most high profile criminal defence lawyer in the country." In 2011, ''Canadian Lawyer'' magazine named her one of the "Top 25 Most Influential" saying she was "one of the most sought-after criminal lawyers in the country" and "a key go-to lawyer for high-profile accused in Toronto." * Anne McLellan (born 1950) is a Canadian lawyer, academic and politician. She was a cabinet minister in the Liberal Party of Canada, Liberal governments of Jean Chrétien and Paul Martin, serving as Deputy Prime Minister of Canada. On February 26, 2015, she was appointed university chancellor, chancellor of Dalhousie University effective May 25. She was a professor of law at the University of New Brunswick and the University of Alberta University of Alberta Faculty of Law, Faculty of Law where she served at various times as associate dean and dean (education), dean. In 2009, McLellan was appointed an Officer of the Order of Canada for her service as a politician and law professor, and for her contributions as a community volunteer. * Rachel Notley (born 1964) is a Canadian politician and the 17th and current Premier of Alberta, premier of Alberta, since 2015. Notley's career before politics focused on labour law, with a specialty in workers' compensation advocacy and workplace health and safety issues. * Mélanie Joly (born 1979) is a Canadian
lawyer A lawyer is a person who is qualified to offer advice about the law, draft legal documents, or represent individuals in legal matters. The exact nature of a lawyer's work varies depending on the legal jurisdiction and the legal system, as w ...
, public relations expert, and politician. She is a Liberal Party of Canada, Liberal member of the House of Commons of Canada representing Ahuntsic-Cartierville (electoral district), Ahuntsic-Cartierville and also serves as the Minister of Canadian Heritage in the Cabinet of Canada, Cabinet, headed by Justin Trudeau. * Jody Wilson-Raybould (born 1971) is a Kwakwaka'wakw Canadian politician and the Liberal Party of Canada, Liberal Member of parliament, Member of Parliament for the riding of Vancouver Granville. She was sworn in as Minister of Justice (Canada), Minister of Justice of Canada on November 4, 2015; the first Indigenous peoples, Indigenous person to be named to that post. Before entering Canadian federal politics, she was a provincial Crown prosecutor, B.C. Treaty Commissioner and Regional Chief of the B.C. Assembly of First Nations. She earned a law degree from the University of British Columbia Faculty of Law.


United Kingdom

* Amal Clooney, UK Lebanese female lawyer * Radha Stirling, UK Australia female lawyer * Brenda Hale, Baroness Hale of Richmond was the first, and only, Lord Justice of Appeal in Ordinary, and following the creation of the new Supreme Court, she became the first woman to serve as a Justice of the Supreme Court. In 2017, she was appointed as the President of the Supreme Court. She was also the first woman to be appointed to the Law Commission. * Elizabeth Butler-Sloss, Baroness Butler-Sloss was the first woman to be appointed to the Court of Appeal as a Lord Justice of Appeal. * Ivy Williams was the first woman to be called to the bar, and the first woman to teach law at a British university. * Carrie Morrison was the first woman solicitor in the United Kingdom. * Helena Normanton was the first woman to become a barrister in the United Kingdom. * Eliza Orme was the first woman to graduate with a law degree, in 1888. Women were not allowed to enter the legal profession until 1919 with the passage of the
Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act 1919 Sex is the biological trait that determines whether a sexual reproduction, sexually reproducing organism produces male or female gametes. During sexual reproduction, a male and a female gamete fuse to form a zygote, which develops into an o ...
.


Middle East and North Africa

* was the first female judge in Mandatory Palestine (1919). * Suat Berk, Suat Hilmi Berk was the first female judge in Turkey (1925). * List of first women lawyers and judges in Europe#Turkey, Süreyya Ağaoğlu was the first female lawyer in Turkey (1927). * Freda Slutzkin was the first female lawyer in Mandatory Palestine (1930). * Rosa Ginossar was the first female lawyer in Mandatory Palestine (1930). * List of first women lawyers and judges in Asia#Lebanon, Nina Trad was the first female lawyer in Lebanon (1932). * Naima Ilyas al-Ayyubi was the first female lawyer in Egypt (1933). * Emily Bisharat was the first female lawyer in Jordan. * Zakia Hakki was the first female judge in Iraq (1959). * Shirin Ebadi was the first female judge in Iran (1969). * List of first women lawyers and judges in Asia#Kuwait, Suad al-Jassim was the first female lawyer in Kuwait (1973). * Lulwa Al Awadhi and Haya Rashed Al-Khalifa were the first female lawyers in Bahrain (1979). * List of first women lawyers and judges in Asia#Oman, Kamilia al Busaidy was the first female registered lawyer in Oman (1997). * List of first women lawyers and judges in Asia#Qatar, Haifa al-Bakr was the first female lawyer in Qatar (2000) * Sheikha Maha Mansour al-Thani was the first female judge in Qatar (2010). * Arwa al-Hujaili was the first female legal trainee in Saudi Arabia (2013). * Bayan Mahmoud Al-Zahran was the first female licensed lawyer in Saudi Arabia (2013). * Fatima Abdullah Al-Mal became the first female criminal judge in Qatar (2015)


Pakistan

* Asma Jahangir (1952–2018) was a human rights defender and leading lawyer in human rights Lawsuit, litigation in Pakistan who served in different capacities. She was the first woman elected to serve as the president of the Supreme Court Bar Association of Pakistan, Supreme Court Bar Association (2010–2011), and was a member of the Government of Pakistan's Commission of Inquiry for Women (1994-1997). She co-founded and chaired the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, and served as the Director of AGHS Legal Aid Cell which undertakes legal research, provides Pro bono, free legal assistance and lobbies for Law reform, legal reforms. She led movements for the respect of human rights, restoration of Democracy in Pakistan, democracy, and independence of Judiciary of Pakistan, judiciary in Pakistan. She was imprisoned and put under house arrest for being a leader of civil rights movements during the military regime led by Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, General Zia-ul-Haq and Pervez Musharraf, General Pervez Musharraf in 1983 and 2007 respectively. She assumed responsibilities as Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary execution, Summary or Arbitrary Executions (1998-2004), and the Special Rapporteur on Freedom of religion, freedom of religion or belief (2004-2010), and former UN Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Iran, Islamic Republic of Iran (2016-2018). She served as an independent expert in the investigation on human rights violations in Sri Lanka; a member of International Fact-Finding Mission on Israeli settlements in the Palestine (region), Palestine. She was awarded numerous national and international awards including the Hilal-i-Imtiaz, Sitara-i-Imtiaz, whereas the UN Human Rights Prize and the Nishan-e-Imtiaz. * Hina Jilani is a leading human rights defender and an advocate of the Supreme Court of Pakistan. She is the Chairperson at the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan. Along with her sister, she co-founded Pakistan's first-ever all-female law firm in 1981 which engaged in providing legal aid in cases involving violations of human rights of women, children, religious minorities and prisoners, and prepared bills for reforms in national laws in conformity with human rights standards. She co-founded Women's Action Forum, a pressure group campaigning against discriminatory laws against women. She co-founded Dastak in Lahore which provides shelter, legal and support services to women victims of violence, and carries out capacity building and advocacy initiatives. She served as Special Representative of the Secretary-General on the situation of Human Rights Defenders and Promoters, Human Rights Defenders, 2000-2008. In 2006, she was appointed to the UN International Fact-Finding Commission on Darfur. In 2013, she joined "The Elders," a group of statespeople, peace builders, and human rights activists brought together by Nelson Mandela. She is also a member of the Eminent Jurists Panel on Terrorism, Counter-terrorism and Human Rights. In recognition of her efforts in the field of human rights, she was awarded the Human Rights Award by the Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, and Ginetta Sagan, Ginetta Sagan Award by the Amnesty International, and the Stockholm Human Rights Award by the Swedish Bar Association, the International Bar Association and the International Legal Assistance Consortium. * Tahira Safdar, Justice (Retd.) Tahira Safdar is a jurist who served as the Chief Justice of Balochistan High Court, 2018–2019. She holds a unique position of being appointed as the first female civil judge in Balochistan in 1982, and the first female chief justice of any court in the history of Pakistan. * Nasira Iqbal, Justice (Retd.) Nasira Javed Iqbal is a jurist who served as the advocate for Supreme Court of Pakistan, and as a judge at the Lahore High Court (1994–2002). She is one of the first five women lawyers making it to a coveted post as Judge at High Court. She served as the president at the Lahore High Court Bar Association (2009–2010) and as a member at the Supreme Court Bar Association of Pakistan. She served as a member of the Law & Justice Commission of Pakistan, and the Commission on Inquiry on Enforced disappearances in Pakistan, Enforced Disappearance (2010). She has had the honor of representing Pakistan's Delegation at the United Nations Human Rights Council, UN Human Rights Commission in Geneva, 1995. She has been teaching law at University of Central Punjab, Lahore, and is running a school for the disadvantaged children. She is a member of Pakistan Women Lawyers' Association, Pakistan Women Lawyers' Association, and associated with several organizations as a member including; Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, and Peoples Commission for Minorities Rights. She was awarded with the Sitara-i-Imtiaz in recognition to her public services for the judicial system. * Majida Rizvi, Justice (Retd.) Majida Rizvi is a jurist, and currently serving as the Chairperson of Sindh Human Rights Commission. She has served as the Chairperson of the National Commission on the Status of Women, 2002–2005, and as the attorney for the Supreme Court of Pakistan, and as a judge at the Sindh High Court, 1994–1999. She holds a unique position of serving as the first woman judge of a High Court in Pakistan. She has been teaching at Hamdard School of Law, and is the trustee of a shelter home 'Panah' in Karachi which provides services for the protection and rehabilitation of distressed women and children seeking solace. She is the one who dared to challenge the discriminatory Hudood laws by declaring them against Islam in 2003.She has been raising voice against gender-based discrimination and violence, and has been making efforts to educate women regarding their legal rights. She was nominated for Nobel Peace Prize in 2005. She was awarded the human rights defenders award by the government of Pakistan in 2012. * Sarah Belal is a
barrister A barrister is a type of lawyer in common law jurisdiction (area), jurisdictions. Barristers mostly specialise in courtroom advocacy and litigation. Their tasks include arguing cases in courts and tribunals, drafting legal pleadings, jurisprud ...
and the Founder and Executive Director of the Justice Project Pakistan which provides pro bono legal representation to the most vulnerable prisoners on death row. Her organization helped secure the release of 42 Pakistani detainees from Bagram in Afghanistan, and secured stays of executions of several death row prisoners. She is a strong advocate for lifting the moratorium on the death penalty in Pakistan. She is the recipient of the Franco-German Human Rights Prize, and the National Human Rights Award by the Government of Pakistan. * Maliha Zia Lari is a lawyer and a trainer. She is the Associate Director at the Legal Aid Society. She has been engaged in analyzing laws relating to gender-based violence, and has contributed to the drafting several laws to deal with issues such as; domestic violence, Hindu Marriage Act, etc. She has been involved in providing training to the police officers and judges at the Judicial Academies in Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Islamabad. * Jalila Haider is a human rights attorney that provides pro-bono legal services to poverty-affected women. She is the first woman lawyer from the Hazaras, Hazara community, an ethnic minority group in Balochistan. She is also a political activist associated with Awami Workers Party and Women Democratic Front, and the Pashtun Tahafuz Movement. She is the founder of the 'We the Humans-Pakistan, which works for the socio-economic uplift of local communities, and strengthening the capacity of vulnerable women. She is vocal against human rights violations including Enforced disappearances in Pakistan, enforced disappearances, target killing of Baloch and Pashtuns political workers, and ethnic cleansing of the Hazaras. She was selected in the 'News Women Power 50, and the 100 Women (BBC), BBC's 100 Women, and as an International Women of Courage Award, International Woman of Courage by the U.S. Secretary of State, Mike Pompeo, Michael R. Pompeo and First Lady of USA, Melania Trump. She is a recipient of Hum TV Women Leaders Award 2020, and Front Line Heroes Award. * Asma Hamid is a lawyer of the Supreme Court of Pakistan, Supreme Court, and the Head of Litigation at Asma Hamid Associates. She has provided advice to the Government of Punjab, Pakistan, Government of Punjab on an extensive range of policy matters including energy, education, health, criminal matters, prosecution reforms, agricultural laws reforms, and service matters. She has the unique distinction of being the first woman to hold the post of Advocate general, Advocate General for Punjab in Pakistan's history. * Nighat Dad is a lawyer, and the Founder and Executive Director of the Digital Rights Foundation which engages in research, capacity building, and policy advocacy to strengthen protections for human rights defenders against Cybercrime, cyber-harassment and surveillance. She engages in analyzing laws, policies, and rules relating to online freedom, and advocates for the right to privacy and freedom of expression without being threatened, and raises a voice against censorship and surveillance. She has been included as a member of Facebook's Supreme Court to oversee decisions regarding content published on the social media network. She is Time Magazine's next-generation leader for 2015, and has won the Atlantic Council Freedom Award along with the prestigious Tulip Award in 2016. * Nida Usman Chaudhary is a lawyer, and the Founder of Lahore Education and Research Network (LEARN) and Women in Law Initiative Pakistan. She is serving as the Chairperson of the Gender Equality and Diversity Committee of the Lahore High Court Bar Association. She has initiated a project for increasing women's representation in law between the Ministry of Law and Justice (Pakistan), Federal Ministry of Law and Justice, Group Development Pakistan, and Women in Law Initiative Pakistan, which is sponsored mainly by the Australian High Commission and co-sponsored by the British High Commission. * Sana Khurshid is a lawyer and an advocate for Disability rights movement, disability rights. She raises a voice for developing disability-friendly buildings to make accessibility and mobility of persons with disabilities possible. She advocates for creating better opportunities for employment without discrimination so that persons with disabilities could lead their dignified lives independently. She is currently the Spine Ambassador for the Spinal Centre at Ghurki Trust Hospital in Lahore.


See also

* Black women in American law * First women lawyers in the United States * List of first women lawyers by nationality [International] * Timeline of women lawyers * Timeline of women lawyers in the United States


References

{{Reflist, 30em


Dataset


Women on High Courts
– a dataset on female judges on constitutional courts and supreme courts worldwide.


Further reading

* Bartlett, K., 1990. "Feminist Legal Methods," ''Harvard Law Review'', 1039(4): 829–888. * Bartlett, K. and R. Kennedy (eds.), 1991. ''Feminist Legal Theory'', Boulder: Westview Press. * Martha Chamallas, Chamallas, M., 2003. ''Introduction to Feminist Legal Theory'', 2d edition, Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Law & Business. * Frug, M.J., 1992. "Sexual Equality and Sexual Difference in American Law," ''New England Law Review'', 26: 665–682. * Gould, C., 2003. "Women's Human Rights & the U.S. Constitution," in S. Schwarwenbach and P. Smith (eds.), *''Women and the United States Constitution'', New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 197–219. * Catharine MacKinnon, MacKinnon, C., 2006. ''Are Women Human?'', Cambridge: Harvard University Press. * Olsen, F. (ed.), 1995. ''Feminist Legal Theory'', New York: New York University Press. * Manji (eds.), ''International Law: Modern Feminist Approaches'', Oxford and Portland, OR: Hart Publishing. * Rackley, E., and Auchmuty, R., 2018. ''Women's Legal Landmarks: Celebrating the history of women and law in the UK and Ireland'', New York and London: Hart Publishing. * Scales, A., 2006. ''Legal Feminism: Activism, Lawyering and Legal Theory'', New York: New York University Press. * Schwarzenbach, S. and P. Smith (eds.), 2003. ''Women & the United States Constitution'', New York: Columbia University Press. * Sen, A., 1995. "Gender Inequality & Theories of Justice," in M. Nussbaum and J. Glover (eds.) 1995, pp. 259–273. * Smith, P., 2005. "Four Themes in Feminist Legal Theory: Difference, Dominance, Domesticity & Denial," in M. Golding and W. Edmundson, ''Philosophy of Law & Legal Theory'', Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, pp. 90–104. * –– (ed.), 1993. ''Feminist Jurisprudence'', New York: Oxford University Press. * Stark, B., 2004. "Women, Globalization, & Law," ''Pace International Law Review'', 16: 333–356. * Maria C. Escobar-Lemmon, Valerie J. Hoekstra, Alice J. Kang, and Miki Caul Kittilson. 2021.
Breaking the Judicial Glass Ceiling: The Appointment of Women to High Courts Worldwide
" ''Journal of Politics.'' Women in law, Legal professions Women lawyers, Women judges Women in society