Web mapping or an online mapping is the process of using, creating, and distributing

map A map is a symbolic depiction of interrelationships, commonly spatial, between things within a space. A map may be annotated with text and graphics. Like any graphic, a map may be fixed to paper or other durable media, or may be displayed on ...

s on the

World Wide Web The World Wide Web (WWW or simply the Web) is an information system that enables Content (media), content sharing over the Internet through user-friendly ways meant to appeal to users beyond Information technology, IT specialists and hobbyis ...

(the Web), usually through the use of Web geographic information systems (Web GIS). A web map or an online map is both served and consumed, thus, web mapping is more than just web

cartography Cartography (; from , 'papyrus, sheet of paper, map'; and , 'write') is the study and practice of making and using maps. Combining science, aesthetics and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality (or an imagined reality) can ...

, it is an interactive service where consumers may choose what the map will show.

Introduction

The advent of web mapping can be regarded as a major new trend in cartography. Until recently, cartography was restricted to a few

companies A company, abbreviated as co., is a legal entity representing an association of legal people, whether natural, juridical or a mixture of both, with a specific objective. Company members share a common purpose and unite to achieve specifi ...

, institutes and mapping agencies, requiring relatively expensive and complex hardware and software as well as skilled cartographers and

geomatics Geomatics is defined in the ISO/TC 211 series of standards as the "discipline concerned with the collection, distribution, storage, analysis, processing, presentation of geographic data or geographic information". Under another definition, it ...

engineers. Web mapping has brought many geographical datasets, including free ones generated by

OpenStreetMap OpenStreetMap (abbreviated OSM) is a free, Open Database License, open geographic database, map database updated and maintained by a community of volunteers via open collaboration. Contributors collect data from surveying, surveys, trace from Ae ...

and proprietary datasets owned by

Baidu Baidu, Inc. ( ; ) is a Chinese multinational technology company specializing in Internet services and artificial intelligence. It holds a dominant position in China's search engine market (via Baidu Search), and provides a wide variety of o ...

Google Google LLC (, ) is an American multinational corporation and technology company focusing on online advertising, search engine technology, cloud computing, computer software, quantum computing, e-commerce, consumer electronics, and artificial ...

HERE Here may refer to: Music * ''Here'' (Adrian Belew album), 1994 * ''Here'' (Alicia Keys album), 2016 * ''Here'' (Cal Tjader album), 1979 * ''Here'' (Edward Sharpe album), 2012 * ''Here'' (Idina Menzel album), 2004 * ''Here'' (Merzbow album), ...

, TomTom, and others. A range of free software to generate maps has also been conceived and implemented alongside proprietary tools like

ArcGIS ArcGIS is a family of client, server and online geographic information system (GIS) software developed and maintained by Esri. ArcGIS was first released in 1982 as ARC/INFO, a command line-based GIS. ARC/INFO was later merged into ArcGIS De ...

. As a result, the

barrier to entry In theories of competition in economics, a barrier to entry, or an economic barrier to entry, is a fixed cost that must be incurred by a new entrant, regardless of production or sales activities, into a market that incumbents do not have or hav ...

for serving maps on the web has been lowered. The terms ''

web GIS Web GIS, also known as Web-based GIS, are Geographic Information Systems (GIS) that employ the World Wide Web (the Web) to facilitate the storage, visualization, analysis, and distribution of spatial information over the Internet. Web GIS involv ...

'' and ''web mapping'' are often used interchangeably, but the terms are distinct. Web GIS uses and enables web maps, and end users who are ''web mapping'' are gaining analytical capabilities from Web GIS, however Web GIS has more applications than web mapping, and web mapping can be accomplished without Web GIS. Web GIS emphasizes

geodata Geographic data and information is defined in the ISO/TC 211 series of standards as data and information having an implicit or explicit association with a location relative to Earth (a geographic location or geographic position). It is also ca ...

processing aspects more involved with design aspects such as data acquisition and server software architecture such as data storage and algorithms, than it does the end-user reports themselves. The term ''

location-based service Location-based service (LBS) is a general term denoting software service (economics), services which use geographic data and information to provide services or information to users. LBS can be used in a variety of contexts, such as health, indoor ...

s'' refers to ''web mapping'' consumer goods and services. Web mapping usually involves a

web browser A web browser, often shortened to browser, is an application for accessing websites. When a user requests a web page from a particular website, the browser retrieves its files from a web server and then displays the page on the user's scr ...

or other user agent capable of client-server interactions. Questions of quality, usability, social benefits, and legal constraints are driving its evolution.

Types

A first classification of web maps has been made by Kraak in 2001. Kraak, Menno Jan (2001): ''Settings and needs for web cartography'', in: Kraak and Allan Brown (eds), Web Cartography, Francis and Taylor, New York, p. 3–4. see also webpag

. Accessed 2007-01-04. He distinguished ''static'' and ''dynamic'' web maps and further distinguished ''interactive'' and ''view only'' web maps. Today there is an increased number of dynamic web maps types, and static web map sources.

Analytical web maps

Analytical web maps offer GIS analysis. The geodata can be a static provision, or need updates. The borderline between analytical web maps and web GIS is fuzzy. Parts of the analysis can be carried out by the GIS geodata server. As web clients gain capabilities processing is distributed.

Animated and realtime

Realtime maps show the situation of a phenomenon in close to Real-time computing, realtime (only a few seconds or minutes delay). They are usually animated. Data is collected by sensors and the maps are generated or updated at regular intervals or on demand. Animated maps show changes in the map over time by animating one of the graphical or temporal variables. Technologies enabling client-side display of animated web maps include

scalable vector graphics Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) is an XML-based vector graphics format for defining two-dimensional graphics, having support for interactivity and animation. The SVG specification is an open standard developed by the World Wide Web Consortium sin ...

(SVG), Adobe Flash, Java, QuickTime, and others. Web maps with real-time animation include weather maps,

traffic congestion map A traffic congestion map is a graphical, realtime or near-realtime representation of traffic flow for some particular area. Data is typically collected via anonymous GPS datapoints and loop sensors embedded in the roadways, then processed by ...

s and vehicle monitoring systems.

CartoDB CARTO (formerly CartoDB) is a software as a service (SaaS) spatial analysis platform that provides GIS, web mapping, data visualization, spatial analytics, and spatial data science features. The company is positioned as a Location Intelligence ...

launched an open source library, Torque, which enables the creation of dynamic animated maps with millions of records. Twitter uses this technology to create maps to reflect how users reacted to news and events worldwide.

Collaborative web maps

Collaborative maps are a developing potential. In proprietary or open source collaborative software, users collaborate to create and improve the web mapping experience. This type of web mapping is the most popular or familiar amongst the population today. Some collaborative web mapping projects are: *

Google Map Maker Google Map Maker was a map editing service launched by Google in June 2008. In geographies where it is hard to find providers of good map data, user contributions were used to increase map quality. Changes to Google Map Maker were intended to ap ...

Here Map Creator Here Technologies (stylized and trade name as HERE and here) is a multinational group based in The Netherlands specialized in mapping technologies, location data, and related automotive services to individuals and companies. It is majority- ...

* WikiMapia * meta:Maps - a survey of

Wikimedia movement The Wikimedia movement is the global community of contributors to the Wikimedia projects, including Wikipedia. This community directly builds and administers these projects with the commitment of achieving this using open standards and software. ...

web mapping proposals

Online atlases

Online atlases are collections of maps in a specific period of time like general reference maps, thematic maps, and geographical information. The traditional

atlas An atlas is a collection of maps; it is typically a bundle of world map, maps of Earth or of a continent or region of Earth. Advances in astronomy have also resulted in atlases of the celestial sphere or of other planets. Atlases have traditio ...

goes through a remarkably large transition when hosted on the web. Atlases can cease their printed editions or offer printing on demand. Some atlases also offer raw data downloads of the underlying geospatial data sources.

Static web maps

Static

web page A web page (or webpage) is a World Wide Web, Web document that is accessed in a web browser. A website typically consists of many web pages hyperlink, linked together under a common domain name. The term "web page" is therefore a metaphor of pap ...

s are '' view only'' without

animation Animation is a filmmaking technique whereby still images are manipulated to create moving images. In traditional animation, images are drawn or painted by hand on transparent celluloid sheets to be photographed and exhibited on film. Animati ...

interactivity Across the many fields concerned with interactivity, including information science, computer science, human-computer interaction, communication, and industrial design, there is little agreement over the meaning of the term "interactivity", but ...

. These maps were often used before technological advancements allowed the user to interact. These files are created once, often manually, and infrequently updated. Typical graphics formats for static web maps are PNG,

JPEG JPEG ( , short for Joint Photographic Experts Group and sometimes retroactively referred to as JPEG 1) is a commonly used method of lossy compression for digital images, particularly for those images produced by digital photography. The degr ...

GIF The Graphics Interchange Format (GIF; or , ) is a Raster graphics, bitmap Image file formats, image format that was developed by a team at the online services provider CompuServe led by American computer scientist Steve Wilhite and released ...

, or

TIFF Tag Image File Format or Tagged Image File Format, commonly known by the abbreviations TIFF or TIF, is an image file format for storing raster graphics images, popular among graphic artists, the publishing industry, and photographers. TIFF is w ...

(e.g., drg) for

raster file:Rgb-raster-image.svg, upright=1, The Smiley, smiley face in the top left corner is a raster image. When enlarged, individual pixels appear as squares. Enlarging further, each pixel can be analyzed, with their colors constructed through comb ...

files, SVG,

PDF Portable document format (PDF), standardized as ISO 32000, is a file format developed by Adobe Inc., Adobe in 1992 to present documents, including text formatting and images, in a manner independent of application software, computer hardware, ...

or SWF for

vector Vector most often refers to: * Euclidean vector, a quantity with a magnitude and a direction * Disease vector, an agent that carries and transmits an infectious pathogen into another living organism Vector may also refer to: Mathematics a ...

files. These include scanned paper maps not designed as screen maps. Paper maps have a much higher resolution and information density than typical

computer displays A computer monitor is an output device that displays information in pictorial or textual form. A discrete monitor comprises a electronic visual display, visual display, support electronics, power supply, Housing (engineering), housing, electri ...

of the same physical size, and might be unreadable when displayed on screens at the wrong resolution.

Web GIS in the cloud

Various companies now offer web mapping as a cloud based

software as a service Software as a service (SaaS ) is a cloud computing service model where the provider offers use of application software to a client and manages all needed physical and software resources. SaaS is usually accessed via a web application. Unlike o ...

. These service providers allow users to create and share maps by uploading data to their servers (cloud storage). The maps are created either by using an in browser editor or writing scripts that leverage the service providers API's.

Advantages of mapping software

Compared to traditional techniques, mapping software has many advantages. The disadvantages are also stated. * Web maps can easily deliver up to date information. If maps are generated automatically from

database In computing, a database is an organized collection of data or a type of data store based on the use of a database management system (DBMS), the software that interacts with end users, applications, and the database itself to capture and a ...

s, they can display information in almost Real-time computing, realtime. They do not need to be

printed Printing is a process for mass reproducing text and Printmaking, images using a master form or template. The earliest non-paper products involving printing include cylinder seals and objects such as the Cyrus Cylinder and the Cylinders of Nabon ...

, mastered and distributed. Examples: ** A map displaying

election An election is a formal group decision-making process whereby a population chooses an individual or multiple individuals to hold Public administration, public office. Elections have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative d ...

results, as soon as the election results become available. ** A

using traffic data collected by sensor networks. ** A map showing the current locations of

mass transit Public transport (also known as public transit, mass transit, or simply transit) are forms of transport available to the general public. It typically uses a fixed schedule, route and charges a fixed fare. There is no rigid definition of whi ...

vehicles such as

bus A bus (contracted from omnibus, with variants multibus, motorbus, autobus, etc.) is a motor vehicle that carries significantly more passengers than an average car or van, but fewer than the average rail transport. It is most commonly used ...

es or

train A train (from Old French , from Latin">-4; we might wonder whether there's a point at which it's appropriate to talk of the beginnings of French, that is, when it wa ... , from Latin , "to pull, to draw") is a series of connected vehicles th ...

s, allowing patrons to minimize their waiting time at stops or stations, or be aware of delays in service. ** Weather maps, such as

NEXRAD NEXRAD or Nexrad (Next-Generation Radar) is a network of 159 high-resolution S-band pulse-Doppler radar, Doppler weather radars operated by the National Weather Service (NWS), an agency of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) ...

. *

Software Software consists of computer programs that instruct the Execution (computing), execution of a computer. Software also includes design documents and specifications. The history of software is closely tied to the development of digital comput ...

and hardware

infrastructure Infrastructure is the set of facilities and systems that serve a country, city, or other area, and encompasses the services and facilities necessary for its economy, households and firms to function. Infrastructure is composed of public and pri ...

for web maps is cheap.

Web server A web server is computer software and underlying Computer hardware, hardware that accepts requests via Hypertext Transfer Protocol, HTTP (the network protocol created to distribute web content) or its secure variant HTTPS. A user agent, co ...

hardware is cheaply available and many

open source Open source is source code that is made freely available for possible modification and redistribution. Products include permission to use and view the source code, design documents, or content of the product. The open source model is a decentrali ...

tools exist for producing web maps.

Geodata Geographic data and information is defined in the ISO/TC 211 series of standards as data and information having an implicit or explicit association with a location relative to Earth (a geographic location or geographic position). It is also ca ...

, on the other hand, is not; satellites and fleets of automobiles use expensive equipment to collect the information on an ongoing basis. Perhaps owing to this, many people are still reluctant to publish geodata, especially in places where geodata are expensive. They fear

copyright infringement Copyright infringement (at times referred to as piracy) is the use of Copyright#Scope, works protected by copyright without permission for a usage where such permission is required, thereby infringing certain exclusive rights granted to the c ...

s by other people using their data without proper requests for permission. * Product updates can easily be distributed. Because web maps distribute both logic and data with each request or loading, product updates can happen every time the web user reloads the application. In traditional

, when dealing with printed maps or interactive maps distributed on

offline In computer technology and telecommunications, online indicates a state of connectivity, and offline indicates a disconnected state. In modern terminology, this usually refers to an Internet connection, but (especially when expressed as "on li ...

media ( CD,

DVD The DVD (common abbreviation for digital video disc or digital versatile disc) is a digital optical disc data storage format. It was invented and developed in 1995 and first released on November 1, 1996, in Japan. The medium can store any ki ...

, etc.), a map update takes serious efforts, triggering a reprint or remastering as well as a redistribution of the media. With web maps, data and product updates are easier, cheaper, and faster, and occur more often. Perhaps owing to this, many web maps are of poor quality, both in symbolization, content and data accuracy. * Web maps can combine distributed data sources. Using open standards and documented APIs one can integrate ( mash up) different data sources, if the projection system, map scale and data quality match. The use of centralized data sources removes the burden for individual organizations to maintain copies of the same data sets. The downside is that one has to rely on and trust the external data sources. In addition, with detailed information available and the combination of distributed data sources, it is possible to find out and combine a lot of private and personal information of individual persons. Properties and estates of individuals are now accessible through high resolution aerial and satellite images throughout the world to anyone. * Web maps allow for personalization. By using user profiles, personal filters and personal styling and symbolization, users can configure and design their own maps, if the web mapping systems supports personalization. Accessibility issues can be treated in the same way. If users can store their favourite colors and patterns they can avoid color combinations they cannot easily distinguish (e.g. due to

color blindness Color blindness, color vision deficiency (CVD) or color deficiency is the decreased ability to color vision, see color or differences in color. The severity of color blindness ranges from mostly unnoticeable to full absence of color percept ...

). Despite this, as with paper, web maps have the problem of limited screen space, but more so. This is in particular a problem for mobile web maps; the equipment carried usually has a very small screen, making it less likely that there is room for personalisation. * Web maps enable collaborative mapping similar to web mapping technologies such as

DHTML Dynamic HTML, or DHTML, is a term which was used by some browser vendors to describe the combination of HTML, style sheets and client-side scripts (JavaScript, VBScript, or any other supported scripts) that enabled the creation of interactiv ...

Ajax Ajax may refer to: Greek mythology and tragedy * Ajax the Great, a Greek mythological hero, son of King Telamon and Periboea * Ajax the Lesser, a Greek mythological hero, son of Oileus, the king of Locris * Ajax (play), ''Ajax'' (play), by the an ...

, SVG,

Java Java is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea (a part of Pacific Ocean) to the north. With a population of 156.9 million people (including Madura) in mid 2024, proje ...

Adobe Flash Adobe Flash (formerly Macromedia Flash and FutureSplash) is a mostly discontinuedAlthough it is discontinued by Adobe Inc., for the Chinese market it is developed by Zhongcheng and for the international enterprise market it is developed by Ha ...

, etc. enable distributed data acquisition and collaborative efforts. Examples for such projects are the

project or the

Google Earth Google Earth is a web mapping, web and computer program created by Google that renders a 3D computer graphics, 3D representation of Earth based primarily on satellite imagery. The program maps the Earth by superimposition, superimposing satelli ...

community. As with other open projects, quality assurance is very important, however, and the reliability of the internet and web server infrastructure is not yet good enough. Especially if a web map relies on external, distributed data sources, the original author often cannot guarantee the availability of the information. * Web maps support

hyperlink In computing, a hyperlink, or simply a link, is a digital reference providing direct access to Data (computing), data by a user (computing), user's point and click, clicking or touchscreen, tapping. A hyperlink points to a whole document or to ...

ing to other information on the web. Just like any other

or a

wiki A wiki ( ) is a form of hypertext publication on the internet which is collaboratively edited and managed by its audience directly through a web browser. A typical wiki contains multiple pages that can either be edited by the public or l ...

, web maps can act like an index to other information on the web. Any sensitive area in a map, a label text, etc. can provide hyperlinks to additional information. As an example a map showing public transport options can directly link to the corresponding section in the online train time table. However, development of web maps is complicated enough as it is: Despite the increasing availability of free and commercial tools to create web mapping and web GIS applications, it is still a more complex task to create interactive web maps than to typeset and print images. Many technologies, modules, services and data sources have to be mastered and integrated. The development and debugging environments of a conglomerate of different web technologies is still awkward and uncomfortable.

History

This section contains some of the milestones of web mapping, online mapping services and atlases.For technological context, see

History of the World Wide Web World Wide Web, The World Wide Web ("WWW", "W3" or simply "the Web") is a global information medium that users can access via computers connected to the Internet. The term is often mistakenly used as a synonym for the Internet, but the Web is ...

and related topics under History of computer hardware. * 1989: ''Birth of the WWW'',

WWW The World Wide Web (WWW or simply the Web) is an information system that enables Content (media), content sharing over the Internet through user-friendly ways meant to appeal to users beyond Information technology, IT specialists and hobbyis ...

invented at

CERN The European Organization for Nuclear Research, known as CERN (; ; ), is an intergovernmental organization that operates the largest particle physics laboratory in the world. Established in 1954, it is based in Meyrin, western suburb of Gene ...

for the exchange of research documents.More details are in: History of the World Wide Web#1980–1991: Invention and implementation. * 1993: '' Xerox PARC Map Viewer'', The first mapserver based on CGI/

Perl Perl is a high-level, general-purpose, interpreted, dynamic programming language. Though Perl is not officially an acronym, there are various backronyms in use, including "Practical Extraction and Reporting Language". Perl was developed ...

, allowed reprojection styling and definition of map extent. * 1994: ''The National Atlas of Canada'', The first version of the National Atlas of Canada was released. Can be regarded as the first online atlas. * 1995: ''The Gazetteer for Scotland'', The prototype version of the Gazetteer for Scotland was released. The first geographical database with interactive mapping. * 1995: ''Tiger Mapping Service'', from the U.S. Census Bureau, the first national street-level web map, and the first major web map from the U.S. government.

Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Commons, or simply Commons, is a wiki-based Digital library, media repository of Open content, free-to-use images, sounds, videos and other media. It is a project of the Wikimedia Foundation. Files from Wikimedia Commons can be used ...

* 1995: '' MapGuide'', First introduced as Argus MapGuide. * 1996: Center for Advanced Spatial Technologies Interactive Mapper, Based on CGI/

C shell The C shell (csh or the improved version, tcsh) is a Unix shell created by Bill Joy while he was a graduate student at University of California, Berkeley in the late 1970s. It has been widely distributed, beginning with the 2BSD release of the ...

GRASS Poaceae ( ), also called Gramineae ( ), is a large and nearly ubiquitous family (biology), family of monocotyledonous flowering plants commonly known as grasses. It includes the cereal grasses, bamboos, the grasses of natural grassland and spe ...

would allow the user to select a geographic extent, a raster base layer, and number of vector layers to create personalized map. * 1996: '' Mapquest'', The first popular online Address Matching and Routing Service with mapping output. * 1996: ''

MultiMap In computer science, a multimap (sometimes also multihash, multidict or multidictionary) is a generalization of a map or associative array abstract data type in which more than one value may be associated with and returned for a given key. Both ...

'', The UK-based MultiMap website launched offering online mapping, routing and location based services. Grew into one of the most popular UK web sites. * 1996: '' MapGuide'', Autodesk acquired Argus Technologies.and introduced Autodesk MapGuide 2.0. National Atlas of the United States Logo

* 1997: ''US Online National Atlas Initiative'', The

USGS The United States Geological Survey (USGS), founded as the Geological Survey, is an government agency, agency of the United States Department of the Interior, U.S. Department of the Interior whose work spans the disciplines of biology, geograp ...

received the mandate to coordinate and create the online

National Atlas of the United States The ''National Atlas of the United States'' was an atlas published by the United States Department of the Interior from 1874 to 1997. Older editions were printed, but the most recent edition was available online. Since it is a publication of ...

. * 1997: UMN

MapServer MapServer is an open-source development environment for building spatially enabled internet applications, built in the C language, and is widely known as one of the fastest Web mapping engines available. It can run as a CGI program or via MapSc ...

1.0, Developed at the University of Minnesota (UMN) as Part of the

NASA The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA ) is an independent agencies of the United States government, independent agency of the federal government of the United States, US federal government responsible for the United States ...

ForNet Project. Grew out of the need to deliver

remote sensing Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an physical object, object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object, in contrast to in situ or on-site observation. The term is applied especially to acquiring inform ...

data across the web for

foresters A forester is a person who practises forest management and forestry, the science, art, and profession of managing forests. Foresters engage in a broad range of activities including Restoration ecology, ecological restoration and management of Pr ...

. * 1998: '' Terraserver USA'', A

Web Map Service A Web Map Service (WMS) is a standard protocol developed by the Open Geospatial Consortium in 1999 for serving georeferenced map images over the Internet. These images are typically produced by a map server from data provided by a GIS database ...

serving

aerial image An aerial image is a projected image which is "floating in air", and cannot be viewed normally. It can only be seen from one position in space, often focused by another lens. Aerial image technology was used in optical printers and movie specia ...

s (mainly b+w) and USGS DRGs was released. One of the first popular WMS. This service is a joint effort of USGS,

Microsoft Microsoft Corporation is an American multinational corporation and technology company, technology conglomerate headquartered in Redmond, Washington. Founded in 1975, the company became influential in the History of personal computers#The ear ...

and HP.

* 2003: ''

NASA World Wind NASA WorldWind is an open-source (released under the NOSA license and the Apache 2.0 license) virtual globe. According to the website, "WorldWind is an open source virtual globe API. WorldWind allows developers to quickly and easily c ...

'', NASA World Wind Released. An open

virtual globe A virtual globe is a 3D computer graphics, three-dimensional (3D) software model or representation of Earth or another world. A virtual globe provides the user with the ability to freely move around in the virtual environment by changing the vie ...

that loads data from distributed resources across the internet. Terrain and buildings can be viewed 3 dimensionally. The (

XML Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a markup language and file format for storing, transmitting, and reconstructing data. It defines a set of rules for encoding electronic document, documents in a format that is both human-readable and Machine-r ...

based) markup language allows users to integrate their own personal content. This virtual globe needs special software and doesn't run in a web browser. * 2004:

, an

open content Free content, libre content, libre information, or free information is any kind of creative work, such as a work of art, a book, a software, software program, or any other creative Media (communication), content for which there are very minimal ...

world map founded by

Steve Coast Stephen Coast (born 20 December 1980) is a British entrepreneur and the founder of the OpenStreetMap community-based world mapping project and CloudMade, a geography-related company. Early life Coast grew up in Walderslade and London, United Ki ...

. * 2004: ''

Yandex Maps Yandex Maps () is a Russian web mapping service developed by Yandex. The service provides detailed maps of the whole world, directions and estimated times of arrival for driving, walking, cycling, kick scooter, and public transportation navigati ...

'' is founded. * 2005: ''

Google Maps Google Maps is a web mapping platform and consumer application offered by Google. It offers satellite imagery, aerial photography, street maps, 360° interactive panorama, interactive panoramic views of streets (Google Street View, Street View ...

'', The first version of Google Maps. Based on raster tiles organized in a

quad tree A quadtree is a tree data structure in which each internal node has exactly four children. Quadtrees are the two-dimensional analog of octrees and are most often used to partition a two-dimensional space by recursively subdividing it into four ...

scheme, data loading done with

XMLHttpRequest XMLHttpRequest (XHR) is an API in the form of a JavaScript object whose methods transmit HTTP requests from a web browser to a web server. The methods allow a browser-based application to send requests to the server after page loading is complet ...

s. This mapping application became highly popular on the web, also because it allowed other people to integrate google map services into their own website. * 2005: ''

Baidu Maps Baidu Maps is a desktop and mobile web mapping service application and technology provided by Baidu, offering satellite imagery, street maps, street view (which is called "Panorama" – :zh:百度全景) and indoor view perspectives, as well a ...

'' is in beta. * 2005: ''

MapGuide Open Source MapGuide Open Source is a web-based map-making platform that enables users to quickly develop and deploy web mapping applications and geospatial web services. The application was introduced as open-source by Autodesk in November 2005, and the co ...

'' introduced as open source by Autodesk * 2005: ''

'', The first version of Google Earth was released building on the virtual globe metaphor. Terrain and buildings can be viewed 3 dimensionally. The

KML Keyhole Markup Language (KML) is an XML notation for expressing geographic annotation and visualization within two-dimensional maps and three-dimensional Earth browsers. KML was developed for use with Google Earth, which was originally named Key ...

(

based) markup language allows users to integrate their own personal content. This virtual globe needs special software and doesn't run in a web browser. * 2005: '' OpenLayers'', the first version of the open source Javascript library OpenLayers. * 2006: '' WikiMapia'' is launched * 2009:

MapTiler MapTiler is a Swiss provider of custom online maps for websites and applications. History MapTiler was one of the companies pioneering map tile implementation. It started as an open source software product in 2008 used by libraries to turn d ...

released as open source software for tiling of geographic data for web maps. * 2009:

Nokia Nokia Corporation is a Finnish multinational corporation, multinational telecommunications industry, telecommunications, technology company, information technology, and consumer electronics corporation, originally established as a pulp mill in 1 ...

made ''

Ovi Maps Here Technologies (stylized and trade name as HERE and here) is a multinational group based in The Netherlands specialized in mapping technologies, location data, and related automotive services to individuals and companies. It is majority- ...

'' free on its smartphones. * 2012: ''

Apple Maps Apple Maps is a web mapping service developed by Apple Inc. As the default map system of iOS, iPadOS, macOS, tvOS, visionOS, and watchOS, it provides directions and estimated times of arrival for driving, walking, cycling, and public trans ...

'', the first vector-tile based mapping app, is launched, replacing

Apple An apple is a round, edible fruit produced by an apple tree (''Malus'' spp.). Fruit trees of the orchard or domestic apple (''Malus domestica''), the most widely grown in the genus, are agriculture, cultivated worldwide. The tree originated ...

's own Google Maps client as the default mapping app for its platforms. * 2020: ''

Petal Maps Petal Maps is a map service based on TomTom provided by Huawei to devices with the operating system HarmonyOS, Android and iOS. It offers satellite imagery, aerial photography, 3D view surroundings, turn-by-turn navigation, head-up display and ...

'' is released.

Technologies

Web mapping technologies require both server-side and client-side applications. The following is a list of technologies utilized in web mapping. *

Spatial databases Spatial may refer to: *Dimension *Space *Three-dimensional space In geometry, a three-dimensional space (3D space, 3-space or, rarely, tri-dimensional space) is a mathematical space in which three values ('' coordinates'') are required to d ...

are usually object relational databases enhanced with geographic data types, methods and properties. They are necessary whenever a web mapping application has to deal with dynamic data (that changes frequently) or with huge amount of geographic data. Spatial databases allow spatial queries, sub selects, reprojections, and geometry manipulations and offer various import and export formats.

PostGIS PostGIS ( ) is an open source software program that adds support for geographic objects to the PostgreSQL object-relational database. PostGIS follows the Simple Features for SQL specification from the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC). PostGIS is ...

is a prominent example; it is open source.

MySQL MySQL () is an Open-source software, open-source relational database management system (RDBMS). Its name is a combination of "My", the name of co-founder Michael Widenius's daughter My, and "SQL", the acronym for Structured Query Language. A rel ...

also implements some spatial features.

Oracle Spatial Oracle Spatial and Graph, formerly Oracle Spatial, is a free option component of the Oracle Database. The spatial features in Oracle Spatial and Graph aid users in managing geographic and location-data in a native type within an Oracle database, p ...

, Microsoft SQL Server (with the spatial extensions), and IBM DB2 are the commercial alternatives. The Open Geospacial Consortium's (OGC) specification "

Simple Features Simple Features (officially Simple Feature Access) is a set of standards that specify a common storage and access model of geographic features made of mostly two-dimensional geometries (point, line, polygon, multi-point, multi-line, etc.) used by ...

" is a standard geometry data model and operator set for spatial databases. Part 2 of the specification defines an implementation using SQL. *

Tiled web map A tiled web map or tile map (also known as slippy map in OpenStreetMap), is a web map displayed by seamlessly joining dozens of individually requested data files, called "tiles". It is the most popular way to display and navigate maps, replacing ...

s display rendered maps made up of raster image "tiles". *

Vector tiles Vector tiles, tiled vectors or vectiles are packets of geographic data, packaged into pre-defined roughly-square shaped "tiles" for transfer over the web. This is an emerging method for delivering styled web maps, combining certain benefits of pre ...

are also becoming more popular—Google and Apple have both transitioned to vector tiles. Mapbox.com also offers vector tiles. This new style of web mapping is resolution independent, and also has the advantage of dynamically showing and hiding features depending on the interaction. * WMS servers generate maps using parameters for user options such as the order of the layers, the styling and symbolization, the extent of the data, the data format, the projection, etc. The OGC standardized these options. Another WMS server standard is the Tile Map Service. Standard image formats include PNG, JPEG, GIF and SVG.

Impact on society

Web maps have become an essential tool for many, as illustrated by a 2021

labor strike Strike action, also called labor strike, labour strike in British English, or simply strike, is a work stoppage caused by the mass refusal of employees to work. A strike usually takes place in response to employee grievances. Strikes became co ...

demanding (among other things) a certain type of map. Web mapping has allowed for a more environmentally conscious way of navigating location. With the creation of web mapping, people do not have to use paper maps anymore, as it is accessible through the internet, benefiting our environment. Also, atlases or paper maps that were accessed could have been outdated. With web mapping, in real time, users are able to get step by step directions to a location based on where they currently are located with the most current geographical information. It also allows you to choose routes with distances and estimated times of travel for each. You can even choose your mode of transportation like driving or walking. Another benefit is that web mapping has allowed more of the general population to access this technology because it is free and accessible to anyone with an internet connection. It also gives us real-time updates about traffic and road conditions which can lead to safer travels. Although not a common use, web mapping can be used to learn more about culture and history. You can explore historical maps, cultural landmarks, natural features, parks, trails, report issues, natural hazards, pollution, and much more. By doing this, we are able to create a safer and more welcoming community to live in. As much as web mapping has helped simplify our lives, there are also negative social consequences to the use of web mapping. There have been concerns raised about the privacy of personal information while using web mapping. It allows government agencies to create massive databases on individuals and their behaviors while the private sector keeps records of personal information. This issue continues to be challenged and negotiated as web mapping has become more relevant. As the use of web mapping has increased, so has the amount of distractions while driving. Drivers can alter their focus away from the road to their device very easily, which could result in a multitude of negative social consequences and safety concerns. While there are many benefits to web mapping allowing anyone to access, create, and distribute maps, many have raised ethical concerns. The web facilitates the spread of misinformation, and people without strong understanding of cartography can publish seemingly authoritative products that may mislead the public. This saw significant attention during the COVID-19 pandemic, where the prevalence of improper maps on dashboards contributed to the

infodemic An infodemic is a rapid and far-reaching spread of both accurate and inaccurate information about certain issues. The word is a portmanteau of ''information'' and ''epidemic'' and is used as a metaphor to describe how misinformation and disinf ...

. Web maps require the internet to host, so they are subject to

link rot Link rot (also called link death, link breaking, or reference rot) is the phenomenon of hyperlinks tending over time to cease to point to their originally targeted file, web page, or server due to that resource being relocated to a new address ...

, making information inaccessible. Unlike physical maps, this can have major impacts on the historical record if the web map is the only source for the data it presents. Web mapping is also used in geography games, notably of which is GeoGuessr. A popular browser based game, users are shown an image from

Google Street View Google Street View is a technology featured in Google Maps and Google Earth that provides interactive panoramas from positions along many streets in the world. It was launched in 2007 in several cities in the United States, and has since expa ...

and must guess the location. The game was received with success upon its launch in May 2013, and skyrocketed to viral popularity during the

COVID-19 pandemic The COVID-19 pandemic (also known as the coronavirus pandemic and COVID pandemic), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), began with an disease outbreak, outbreak of COVID-19 in Wuhan, China, in December ...

as many content creators streamed themselves playing it.

How Web Maps Interact With Human Variation

Web mapping allows you to choose a route of travel with provided directions and real time traffic and road condition updates. Of course, this is only possible with an internet connection. Populations that are associated with lower incomes may not have access to a mobile device with internet as they may not be able to afford it, limiting them of this resource. This technology might also be limiting to certain generations, as well. Younger generations have been cultured in technology for the majority of their lives, so web mapping is an easy resource for them to use. However, older generations tend to be less efficient with technology, as it was not around for the majority of their lifetimes. This can make it difficult for the older generation to understand how to use web mapping when planning their travels. They will often resort to paper maps or a GPS, as that is what is comfortable to them, even though those resources are less efficient and are more outdated than web mapping. As web mapping has become more advanced, they have added a walking feature. This has created an opportunity for the population who might not have access to and/or afford to have a car. They are still able to take advantage of this technology to get to a destination by foot. Web mapping has also opened up new possibilities to those who might struggle with a vision disorder. More than a quarter of the world’s population (about 2.2 billion people) suffer from vision impairment. Web mapping has accommodated this large population by adding a speaking feature. When you enter a destination, you can turn your volume on and the maps will speak your directions to you. This is not only convenient for visually impaired people, but also helps limit distractions while navigating.

Web mapping barriers

There have been concerns raised about the privacy and confidentiality of personal information while using web mapping. Web maps contain personal information such as locations, identities, or attributes of people, places, or things. If not properly secured, your information can be accessed, copied, or manipulated by unauthorized parties. This allows government agencies to create massive databases on individuals and their behaviors while the private sector keeps records of personal information. It can also lead to privacy breaches, data loss, or legal liabilities. To prevent these issues from happening, mostly in a work setting, you need to encrypt your data, use secure protocols and servers, and apply access control and authentication mechanisms. Another possible barrier created by web mapping that may challenge web map security is data integrity and quality. Web maps rely entirely on data sources that could potentially be inaccurate, outdated, or corrupted. If the data is not verified and updated regularly, it can affect the reliability of the web maps. Web mapping can also be vulnerable to data tempering, spoofing, or injection attacks, where false or harmful data can be inserted into web maps. There may also be less threatening situations like when web maps may not be updated on a crash or traffic conditions, or may not take you on the most efficient route. To prevent more of these issues from happening, it is important to report unsafe road conditions or any limitations or uncertainties of any web mapping features.

Notes and references

External links

Sites
UMN MapServer documentation and tutorials

Webmapping with SVG, Postgis and UMN MapServer tutorials

International Cartographic Association (ICA)
the world body for mapping and GIScience professionals
Comparison of Online Mapping Tools
Duke University {{DEFAULTSORT:Web Mapping