Ulkāmukha Pretarāja

Ulkāmukha Pretarāja (Sanskrit: उल्कामुख प्रेतराज; Chinese: 焰口鬼王; pinyin: ''Yànkǒu Guǐwáng''; rōmaji: ''Enkō Kiō'') is a deity within Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhist traditions, particularly prevalent in East Asian Buddhism. He is considered a manifestation of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara (Guanyin), specifically appearing in a wrathful form to aid beings trapped in the preta realm (pretaloka), the realm of hungry ghosts.

Etymology

The Sanskrit term "Ulkāmukha" translates to "flaming mouth" or "torch-faced," reflecting his characteristic appearance. "Pretarāja" means "king of the pretas." His name thus signifies his role as the ruler of the hungry ghosts and his ability to consume and transform their suffering.

Iconography

Ulkāmukha Pretarāja is typically depicted like a hungry ghost, with a fearsome appearance, often with multiple arms and heads, symbolizing his power and ability to overcome obstacles. He is characterized by a gaping mouth with flames emanating from it, representing his ability to consume negative karma and the suffering of pretas. His expression is fierce, signifying his role as both protector and liberator. Sometimes he is depicted with the uniform of a general, emphasizing his role as a leader of the hungry ghosts. He may hold various ritual implements, such as a vajra, a rope, or a treasure pagoda, each embodying different aspects of his power and compassion. He sometimes holds a banner with the mantra Om mani padme hum written on it. A crown adorned with skulls is often depicted, symbolizing the impermanence of life. In paintings or effigies, he is always depicted with an emanation of Guanyin above his head, emphasizing his true form.

Legend

The legend of the Flaming-Faced Ghost King (面燃鬼王) is documented in several Buddhist scriptures, including the ''Sutra on the Dharani for Saving the Flaming-Mouthed Hungry Ghosts'' (佛说救拔焰口饿鬼陀罗尼经) and the ''Yoga Compendium: Dharani for Saving Ananda and the Flaming-Mouthed Ritual'' (瑜伽集要救阿难陀罗尼焰口轨仪经), translated by Amoghavajra (不空三藏) during the Tang dynasty, as well as the ''Sutra on the Dharani and Divine Mantra for Saving the Flaming-Faced Hungry Ghosts'' (救面燃饿鬼陀罗尼神咒经), translated by Śikṣānanda h/sup>(实叉难陀) during the Tang dynasty.

According to these texts, Ananda, one of the Buddha's principal disciples, was practicing meditation in a forest when he suddenly encountered a terrifying ghost king. This ghost king was emaciated, with flames burning fiercely across its face, and it appeared to be in extreme agony. The ghost king introduced itself as "Mianran" (面燃, also known as "Yankou" or Flaming Mouth) and warned Ananda that he would fall into the hungry ghost realm (饿鬼道) in three days. To avoid this fate, Ananda was instructed to make offerings to hundreds of thousands of hungry ghosts and Brahmin sages, providing each with a measure of food, and to make offerings to the Three Jewels (三宝, the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha). Ananda reported this to the Buddha, who then taught him the "Dharani Feeding Method" (陀罗尼施食法). Through the power of the dharani (a sacred mantra), the offered food was transformed into a spiritual offering. This offering was dedicated to the Three Jewels and equally distributed to hungry ghosts and other beings. This act could alleviate the suffering of the ghosts, enabling them to abandon their ghostly forms and be reborn in the heavenly realm. Following the Buddha's instructions, Ananda set up a tablet for the ''Mianran Dashi''[zh
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/nowiki>/sup>(Chinese: 面燃大士; pinyin: ''Miànrán'' ''Dàshì''; lit "Burning-Face Mahāsattva") , organized a vegetarian feast to offer to the monastic community, and prayed for blessings, thereby attaining liberation.

The encounter between ''Mianran Dashi'' and Ānanda is explained in several ways in Buddhist teachings. One interpretation is that he is an incarnation or avatar of the Bodhisattva Guanyin, which is why he is called ''Dashiye'' (Chinese: 大士爺; pinyin: ''Dashiye''; lit: "Master Mahāsattva"). Another explanation suggests that he was originally a leader of ghosts, who, after being enlightened by Guanyin, converted to Buddhism and became known as ''Dashiye'', serving as a deity responsible for overseeing the rituals of the Ghost Festival (中元普渡).

The image of ''Mianran Dashi'' originates partly from the ''Lotus Sutra'', where Guanyin is described as assuming the form of a ghost king to teach and guide beings in the realm of hungry ghosts. This transformation serves the purpose of Guanyin’s compassionate mission to liberate them. Additionally, it serves as a warning to people against greed and stinginess, as these qualities can lead one to develop the consciousness of a hungry ghost and ultimately become a follower of "Face-burning."

Worship

In Buddhism, this figure was originally described as the "King of Ghosts with a Face Burning in Flames" and is considered an incarnation of Guanyin (Avalokitesvara) Bodhisattva. The Buddha's disciple, Ananda, sought to save the hungry ghost Mianran (面然) from suffering, prompting the Buddha to reveal the ritual of feeding hungry ghosts. This ritual subsequently developed into the Yujia Yankou rite in Chinese Buddhism. After this, the hungry ghost Mianran converted to Buddhism and became a protector of the Dharma, known as Mianran Guiwang Dashi (面然鬼王大士). This ritual is also used during the Ghost Festival. Later, the "Flaming-Faced Ghost King" was adopted into Taoism as a deity.

In the Vietnamese tradition, as ''Tiêu Diện Đại Sĩ'', he takes on the role of a Dharma protector, alongside Skanda.

In Taoist belief, the "Flaming-Faced Ghost King" (面燃鬼王) is regarded as an incarnation of Taiyi Jiuku Tianzun (太乙救苦天尊, the Heavenly Lord of Salvation from Suffering), who governs all ghosts and protects both the yin (spiritual) and yang (mortal) realms. Normally, this deity resides at the foot of Mount Wojiao (沃焦之山) and serves as the supreme commander of ghosts in the underworld. During the month when Diguan Dadi (地官大帝, the Earthly Official Emperor) grants amnesty to the deceased, the Flaming-Faced Ghost King oversees the Ghost Festival ensuring that wandering spirits receive offerings of incense and fire from the mortal world. It is believed that during the seventh lunar month, all spirits who come to the mortal world to receive offerings of incense and fire are under the jurisdiction of this deity. In many places, before offering sacrifices to wandering spirits during the Ghost Festival, people first pay homage to Mianran Dashi.

In Taiwan, there are a few temples dedicated to this deity as the main god. The most famous is the in Minxiong Township, Chiayi County, and another is the Longhu Temple (龙湖庙) in Xiaogang District, Kaohsiung City.

Yulanpen Festival

During the Ghost Festival (Yulanpen Festival), it is customary to worship Pudu Gong (a Taoist counterpart to the Flaming-Faced Ghost King) before offering prayers to deceased spirits. In Bukit Mertajam, Penang, Malaysia, the largest paper effigy of ''Dashiye'' (大士爺) in Northern Malaysia is erected at Pek Kong Cheng (伯公埕). This imposing effigy stands 26 feet 8 inches tall and has made the Zhongyuan Festival a major annual event in the region.

During the festival, large crowds of visitors flock to Bukit Mertajam, drawn primarily to worship the grand effigy of ''Dashiye'' — the largest of its kind in Northern Malaysia. This magnificent and awe-inspiring effigy is housed within the Dashiye Hall (大士爺殿) of the Bukit Mertajam Zhongyuan Festival Association, located in the heart of the town. The golden-clad deity, exuding an imposing and majestic presence, also attracts many foreign tourists who come to witness this cultural spectacle.

After the Pudu (Universal Salvation) ceremony is completed, the "Sending Off the Mahāsattva" (送大士) ritual is performed. During this ceremony, the paper effigy of ''Dashiye'' is dismantled, and the image of Guanyin placed on top is respectfully removed. A designated person takes the Guanyin image home for worship. With this, ''Dashiye'', the Mountain Gods, the Earth Gods, the Dharma Protectors, and other deities have fulfilled their merits. Similarly, the wandering spirits from the Cold Forest Courtyard (寒林院) and the Resting Place for Departed Souls (同歸所好兄弟) are expected to return to the underworld.

To send off the deities back to the heavenly and underworld realms, large amounts of joss paper and spirit money—symbolically called "Golden Mountains" (金山) and "Silver Mountains" (銀山)—are burned. The paper effigies of the deities are also ritually incinerated.

In some Yulan Festival celebrations, such as the one held in Central Hong Kong's Thirty Houses Yulan Festival, when the Guanyin image is removed and the paper effigy of ''Dashiye'' is cremated, bamboo poles are used to vigorously strike the effigy. This is done to ensure that no wandering spirits or ghosts remain attached to it before it is sent off.

References

{{Chinese Buddhist Pantheon

Guanyin
Avalokiteśvara
Chinese gods
Chinese folklore
Chinese mythology
Buddhist deities