Technical geography is one of three main branches of
geography
Geography (from Greek: , ''geographia''. Combination of Greek words ‘Geo’ (The Earth) and ‘Graphien’ (to describe), literally "earth description") is a field of science devoted to the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and ...
and involves using, studying, and creating tools to obtain, analyze, interpret, and understand spatial information.
The other two branches,
human geography
Human geography or anthropogeography is the branch of geography that studies spatial relationships between human communities, cultures, economies, and their interactions with the environment. It analyzes spatial interdependencies between social i ...
and
physical geography
Physical geography (also known as physiography) is one of the three main branches of geography. Physical geography is the branch of natural science which deals with the processes and patterns in the natural environment such as the atmosphere, h ...
, can usually apply the concepts and techniques of technical geography. However, a technical geographer may be more concerned with the spatial and technological concepts than the nature of the data. Thus, the spatial data types a technical geographer employs may vary widely, including human and physical geography topics, with the common thread being the techniques and philosophies employed. Within the branch of technical geography are the major and overlapping subbranches of
geographic information science,
geomatics
Geomatics is defined in the ISO/TC 211 series of standards as the "discipline concerned with the collection, distribution, storage, analysis, processing, presentation of geographic data or geographic information". Under another definition, it ...
, and
geoinformatics
Geoinformatics is the science and the technology which develops and uses information science infrastructure to address the problems of geography, cartography, geosciences and related branches of science and engineering, such as Land Surveying.
...
. Technical geography is a product of geography's
quantitative revolution.
["The ‘Quantitative Revolution’", GG3012(NS) Lecture 4, University of Aberdeen, 2011, webpag]
AB12
History
While many techniques in technical geography date back to the origins of cartography, surveying, and remote sensing, it wasn't until the quantitative revolution in geography of the 1950s and 1960s that technical geography began to differentiate into its own branch.
Before this, the techniques and methods of handling spatial information were primarily focused on supporting human or physical geography, rather then a subject of study itself. In the years before the quantitative revolution, geography was generally fragmented, and many United States universities were eliminating geography departments around the country. To address this, geographers began to debate the merits of more scientific and methods-based approaches to the discipline. While this approach was heavily debated among geographers, geography departments at universities across the country began to teach a more scientific approach to geography.
Coinciding with the quantitative revolution was the emergence of early computers. The interdisciplinary nature of geography forces geographers to look at developments in other fields, and geographers tend to observe and adapt technological innovations from other disciplines rather than developing unique technologies to conduct geographic studies.
Computers were no exception. More than a decade after the first computers were developed,
Waldo Tobler
Waldo Rudolph Tobler (November 16, 1930 – February 20, 2018) was an American-Swiss geographer and cartographer. Tobler's idea that "Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things" is referred to ...
published the first paper detailing the use of computers in the map-making process titled "Automation and Cartography" in 1959. While novel in terms of application, the process detailed by Tobler did not allow for storing or analyzing of geographic data. As computer technology progressed and better hardware became available, geographers rapidly adopted the technology to create maps.
In 1960,
Roger Tomlinson
Roger F. Tomlinson, (17 November 1933 – 7 February 2014) was an English-Canadian geographer and the primary originator of modern geographic information systems (GIS), and has been acknowledged as the "father of GIS."
Biography
Dr. Tomlinso ...
created the first true
geographic information system, which allowed for storing and analysis of spatial data within a computer. These tools revolutionized the discipline of geography. In 1985,
Mark Monmonier
Mark Stephen Monmonier (born February 2, 1943) is a Distinguished Professor of Geography and the Environment at the Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs of Syracuse University. He specializes in toponymy, geography, and geographic ...
speculated that computer cartography facilitated by GIS would largely replace traditional pen and paper cartography.
With the emergence of GIS, researchers rapidly began to explore methods to use the technology for a variety of geographic problems.
This lead some geographers to declare the study of these methods their own science within geography.
Along with computers and GIS, new spatial data sources emerged during the quantitative revolution. Remote sensing technology rapidly advanced during the
Cold War
The Cold War is a term commonly used to refer to a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc. The term '' cold war'' is used because the ...
.
As the technology became available to the general public, geographers were soon overwhelmed with large volumes of satellite and aerial images. New techniques were required to store, process, analyze, and use this new data source, birthing remote sensing scientists.
In 1978 the United States military launched the first satellites that would enable the modern
Global Positioning System
The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally Navstar GPS, is a satellite-based radionavigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Space Force. It is one of the global navigation satellite sy ...
, and the system's full capability was made available to the general public in 2000.
This facilitated a level of rapid acquisition of spatial coordinates that previously would have been prohibitively expensive. Geographers began studying methods and applications for this data.
As these new technologies and methods are widely applicable to various disciplines, concern grew among geographers that these other non-geographers in other disciplines might become better at using them than geographers.
In 2008,
Ionel Haidu stated:
Technical geography emerges to correct the historical trend in geography of adapting rather than developing new methods, technologies, and techniques for conducting geographic research by encouraging trained geographers to pursue this line of inquiry.
[
]
Sub-branches
File:The Cartographic Process.png, Cartography
Cartography (; from grc, χάρτης , "papyrus, sheet of paper, map"; and , "write") is the study and practice of making and using maps. Combining science, aesthetics and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality (or an im ...
File:Australian Census 2011 demographic map - Australia by SLA - BCP field 2715 Christianity Anglican Persons.svg, Digital mapping
Digital mapping (also called digital or computer cartography) is the process by which a collection of spatial data is compiled and formatted into a virtual image on a computer. The primary function of this technology is to produce maps that give a ...
File:Worldwind.png, Geoinformatics
Geoinformatics is the science and the technology which develops and uses information science infrastructure to address the problems of geography, cartography, geosciences and related branches of science and engineering, such as Land Surveying.
...
File:Fig 4.4.png, Geographic information science
File:Geoservices server with apps.png, Geographic information systems
File:Euclidean Voronoi diagram.svg, Geostatistics
Geostatistics is a branch of statistics focusing on spatial or spatiotemporal datasets. Developed originally to predict probability distributions of ore grades for mining operations, it is currently applied in diverse disciplines including p ...
File:Survey instruments-2.png, Geomatics
Geomatics is defined in the ISO/TC 211 series of standards as the "discipline concerned with the collection, distribution, storage, analysis, processing, presentation of geographic data or geographic information". Under another definition, it ...
File:gislayers.jpg, Geovisualization Geovisualization or geovisualisation (short for geographic visualization), also known as cartographic visualization, refers to a set of tools and techniques supporting the analysis of geospatial data through the use of interactive visualization.
Li ...
File:GPS-IIR.jpg, Global Positioning System
The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally Navstar GPS, is a satellite-based radionavigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Space Force. It is one of the global navigation satellite sy ...
File:Meridian convergence and spehrical excess.png, Geodesy
Geodesy ( ) is the Earth science of accurately measuring and understanding Earth's figure (geometric shape and size), orientation in space, and gravity. The field also incorporates studies of how these properties change over time and equivale ...
File:World map of submarine cables.png, Internet GIS
Internet GIS, or Internet geographic information systems, is a term that refers to a broad set of technologies and applications that employ the Internet to access, analyze, visualize, and distribute spatial data.
Introduction
Internet GIS is a ...
File:MapAlgebra.png, Map algebra
Map algebra is an algebra for manipulating geographic data, primarily fields. Developed by Dr. Dana Tomlin and others in the late 1970s, it is a set of primitive operations in a geographic information system (GIS) which allows one or more ras ...
Image:Alpha2000.jpg, Photogrammetry
File:Remote Sensing Illustration.jpg, Remote Sensing
Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object, in contrast to in situ or on-site observation. The term is applied especially to acquiring information about Eart ...
File:Example_krig.png, Spatial analysis
Spatial analysis or spatial statistics includes any of the formal techniques which studies entities using their topological, geometric, or geographic properties. Spatial analysis includes a variety of techniques, many still in their early deve ...
File:Sample of time geographical description.png, Time geography Time geography or time-space geography is an evolving transdisciplinary perspective on spatial and temporal processes and events such as social interaction, ecological interaction, social and environmental change, and biographies of individuals. T ...
File:Smartphone with navigation map app.jpg, Web mapping
Web mapping or an online mapping is the process of using maps, usually created through geographic information systems (GIS), on the Internet, more specifically in the World Wide Web (WWW). A web map or an online map is both served and consumed, ...
Laws of geography
The concept of laws in geography is a product of the quantitative revolution and their emergence is highly influential in technical geography. In general, like the concept of technical geography, some geographers argue against the idea that laws in geography are necessary or even valid. These criticisms have been addressed by Tobler and others. The discipline of geography is unlikely to settle the matter anytime soon. Several laws have been proposed, and Tobler's first law of geography is the most widely accepted in geography. The first law of geography, and its relation to spatial autocorrelation, is highly influential in the development of technical geography. Some have argued that geographic laws do not need to be numbered. The existence of a first invites a second, and many have proposed themselves as that. It has also been proposed that Tobler's first law of geography should be moved to the second and replaced with another. A few of the proposed laws of geography are below:
* Tobler's first law of geography The First Law of Geography, according to Waldo Tobler, is "everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things." This first law is the foundation of the fundamental concepts of spatial dependence and spati ...
: "Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant"
* Tobler's second law of geography The second law of geography, according to Waldo Tobler, is "the phenomenon external to a geographic area of interest affects what goes on inside."
Background
Tobler's second law of geography, "the phenomenon external to a geographic area of inte ...
: "the phenomenon external to a geographic area of interest affects what goes on inside."
* Arbia's law of geography
Arbia’s law of geography states, "Everything is related to everything else, but things observed at a coarse spatial resolution are more related than things observed at a finer resolution." Originally proposed as the 2nd law of geography, this is ...
: "Everything is related to everything else, but things observed at a coarse spatial resolution are more related than things observed at a finer resolution."
* Uncertainty principle
In quantum mechanics, the uncertainty principle (also known as Heisenberg's uncertainty principle) is any of a variety of mathematical inequalities asserting a fundamental limit to the accuracy with which the values for certain pairs of physic ...
: "that the geographic world is infinitely complex and that any representation must therefore contain elements of uncertainty, that many definitions used in acquiring geographic data contain elements of vagueness, and that it is impossible to measure location on the Earth's surface exactly."
Controversy and criticism
Publications
*''Applied Geography
''Applied Geography'' is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published quarterly by Elsevier. The journal covers research that applies geographic methods to solve human problems, including human geography, physical geography, and geographical inform ...
''
* ''The Professional Geographer
''The Professional Geographer'' is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal publishing short articles on all aspects of geography. The journal is published by Taylor and Francis on behalf of the American Association of Geographers. According t ...
''
* '' Geographical Bulletin''
* '' Geographia Technica'' – journal focused exclusively on technical geography
* '' Remote Sensing of Environment''
* ''''
*'' Journal of Maps''
Influential geographers
*Anne Kelly Knowles
Anne Kelly Knowles (born 1957) is an American geographer and a specialist in Historical GIS. After teaching for over ten years at Middlebury College in Vermont as a professor of geography, she is now a professor of history at University of Maine. ...
(Born 1957) – influential in the use of GIS and geographic methods in History.
* Dana Tomlin – developer of map algebra
*Cynthia Brewer
Cynthia A. Brewer is an American professor of geography at the Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania, and author. She has worked as a map and atlas design consultant for the U.S. Census Bureau, National Cancer Institute, National Center fo ...
– cartographic theorist that created the Apache 2.0 licensed web application ColorBrewer
*Gerardus Mercator
Gerardus Mercator (; 5 March 1512 – 2 December 1594) was a 16th-century geographer, cosmographer and Cartography, cartographer from the County of Flanders. He is most renowned for creating the Mercator 1569 world map, 1569 world map based on ...
(1512–1594) – a cartographer who produced the Mercator projection
*Michael DeMers
Michael N. DeMers is a geographer and Professor Emeritus of geography at New Mexico State University.
Education and field
DeMers earned his Ph.D. in geography from the University of Kansas in 1985 and has taught geography and courses related to ...
(born 1951) – geographer that wrote numerous books contributing to geographic information systems
*Mark Monmonier
Mark Stephen Monmonier (born February 2, 1943) is a Distinguished Professor of Geography and the Environment at the Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs of Syracuse University. He specializes in toponymy, geography, and geographic ...
(born 1943) – cartographic theorist that wrote numerous books contributing to geographic information systems
*Michael Frank Goodchild
Michael Frank Goodchild (born February 24, 1944) is a British-American geographer. He is an Emeritus Professor of Geography at the University of California, Santa Barbara. After nineteen years at the University of Western Ontario, including th ...
(born 1944) – GIS scholar and winner of the RGS founder's medal in 2003
*Roger Tomlinson
Roger F. Tomlinson, (17 November 1933 – 7 February 2014) was an English-Canadian geographer and the primary originator of modern geographic information systems (GIS), and has been acknowledged as the "father of GIS."
Biography
Dr. Tomlinso ...
(1933–2014) – the primary originator of modern geographic information systems
*Waldo Tobler
Waldo Rudolph Tobler (November 16, 1930 – February 20, 2018) was an American-Swiss geographer and cartographer. Tobler's idea that "Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things" is referred to ...
(1930–2018) – coined the first
First or 1st is the ordinal form of the number one (#1).
First or 1st may also refer to:
*World record, specifically the first instance of a particular achievement
Arts and media Music
* 1$T, American rapper, singer-songwriter, DJ, and rec ...
and second
The second (symbol: s) is the unit of time in the International System of Units (SI), historically defined as of a day – this factor derived from the division of the day first into 24 hours, then to 60 minutes and finally to 60 seconds ...
law of geography
See also
*Areography (geography of Mars)
Areography, also known as the geography of Mars, is a subfield of planetary science that entails the delineation and characterization of regions on Mars. Areography is mainly focused on what is called physical geography on Earth; that is the dis ...
*Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography
''Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography'', abbreviated CATMOG, is a series of 59 short publications, each focused on an individual method or theory in geography.
Background and impact
''Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography'' were p ...
*Earth system science
Earth system science (ESS) is the application of systems science to the Earth. In particular, it considers interactions and 'feedbacks', through material and energy fluxes, between the Earth's sub-systems' cycles, processes and "spheres"— atmo ...
* Environmental science
*Environmental studies
Environmental studies is a multidisciplinary academic field which systematically studies human interaction with the environment. Environmental studies connects principles from the physical sciences, commerce/economics, the humanities, and social ...
* Geomorphology
*Neogeography Neogeography (literally "new geography") is the use of geographical techniques and tools for personal and community activities or by a non-expert group of users. Application domains of neogeography are typically not formal or analytical.
From the p ...
* Planetary science
*Remote sensing
Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object, in contrast to in situ or on-site observation. The term is applied especially to acquiring information about Eart ...
*Internet GIS
Internet GIS, or Internet geographic information systems, is a term that refers to a broad set of technologies and applications that employ the Internet to access, analyze, visualize, and distribute spatial data.
Introduction
Internet GIS is a ...
References
{{Geography topics, state=uncollapsed