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''Tusi'', often translated as "headmen" or "chieftains", were hereditary tribal leaders recognized as imperial officials by the Yuan,
Ming The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of China ruled by the Han people, t ...
, and
Qing The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
dynasties of China, and the Later Lê and
Nguyễn Nguyễn (阮) (sometimes abbreviated as Ng̃) is the most common surname of the Vietnamese people. Outside of Vietnam, the surname is commonly rendered without diacritics as ''Nguyen''. By some estimates 30 to 39 percent of Vietnamese peopl ...
dynasties of Vietnam. They ruled certain ethnic minorities in central China, western China, southwestern China, and the
Indochinese peninsula Mainland Southeast Asia (historically known as Indochina and the Indochinese Peninsula) is the continental portion of Southeast Asia. It lies east of the Indian subcontinent and south of Mainland China and is bordered by the Indian Ocean to th ...
nominally on behalf of the central government. As succession to the ''Tusi'' position was hereditary, these regimes effectively formed numerous autonomous petty dynasties under the suzerainty of the central court. This arrangement is known as the ''Tusi System'' or the ''Native Chieftain System'' ( zh, c=, p=Tǔsī Zhìdù). It should not be confused with the
Chinese tributary system The tributary system of China (simplified Chinese: 中华朝贡体系, traditional Chinese: 中華朝貢體系, pinyin: Zhōnghuá cháogòng tǐxì), or Cefeng system () at its height was a network of loose international relations centered arou ...
or the
Jimi system The Jimi system () or Jimifuzhou () was an autonomous administrative and political organization system used in China between the 7th century and 10th century. It should not be confused with the Chinese tributary system. The term "Jimi" was first s ...
. ''Tusi'' regimes were located primarily in
Yunnan Yunnan; is an inland Provinces of China, province in Southwestern China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 47.2 million (as of 2020). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the Chinese provinces ...
,
Guizhou ) , image_skyline = , image_caption = , image_map = Guizhou in China (+all claims hatched).svg , mapsize = 275px , map_alt = Map showing the location of Guizhou Province , map_caption = Map s ...
,
Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ), or Greater Tibet, is a region in the western part of East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are other ethnic groups s ...
,
Sichuan Sichuan is a province in Southwestern China, occupying the Sichuan Basin and Tibetan Plateau—between the Jinsha River to the west, the Daba Mountains to the north, and the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau to the south. Its capital city is Cheng ...
,
Chongqing ChongqingPostal Romanization, Previously romanized as Chungking ();. is a direct-administered municipality in Southwestern China. Chongqing is one of the four direct-administered municipalities under the State Council of the People's Republi ...
, the Xiangxi Prefecture of
Hunan Hunan is an inland Provinces of China, province in Central China. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the Administrative divisions of China, province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangxi to the east, Gu ...
, and the Enshi Prefecture of
Hubei Hubei is a province of China, province in Central China. It has the List of Chinese provincial-level divisions by GDP, seventh-largest economy among Chinese provinces, the second-largest within Central China, and the third-largest among inland ...
. ''Tusi'' entities were also established in the historical dependencies and frontier regions of China in what is today northern
Myanmar Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar; and also referred to as Burma (the official English name until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia. It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and has ...
,
Laos Laos, officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic (LPDR), is the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by Myanmar and China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the southeast, and Thailand to the west and ...
, and northern
Thailand Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand and historically known as Siam (the official name until 1939), is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. With a population of almost 66 million, it spa ...
. The Vietnamese Later Lê and Nguyễn dynasties also implemented the ''Tusi'' system. In 2015,
UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO ) is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) with the aim of promoting world peace and International secur ...
designated three ''Tusi'' castles (
Laosicheng Laosicheng () is an archaeological site in Sicheng Village () of Lingxi Town, Yongshun County, Hunan Province, China. It is one of the three Tusi Sites designated by the UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, designated on July 3, 2015. The site is the ...
,
Tangya The Tangya Tusi Fortress () is located in Tangya Town (), Xianfeng County, Hubei Province, China. It is one of the three Tusi Sites designated by the UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, designated on July 3, 2015.''China Scenic'' Hailongtun – the D ...
, and
Hailongtun Hailongtun () is a ruined fortress on the Longyan Mountain, in Hailongtun Village, Gaoping Town, Zunyi City, Guizhou Province, China. It was the stronghold of the Chiefdom of Bozhou until its destruction by the Ming dynasty after the Bozhou rebell ...
) as part of the "
Tusi Sites The Tusi Sites () refer to the three ancient Tusi sites in China that were designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site on July 3, 2015. It is the 48th World Heritage Site in China. These sites are located in the mountains of Southwest China and e ...
" World Heritage Site in China, owing to the unique system of governance. It has been described on at least one occasion as sharing similarities with the "U.S. federal government's recognition of some
Native American tribes In the United States, an American Indian tribe, Native American tribe, Alaska Native village, Indigenous tribe, or Tribal nation may be any current or historical tribe, band, or nation of Native Americans in the United States. Modern forms of t ...
as in some ways sovereign entities."


History


Yuan dynasty

The ''tusi'' system was inspired by the
Jimi system The Jimi system () or Jimifuzhou () was an autonomous administrative and political organization system used in China between the 7th century and 10th century. It should not be confused with the Chinese tributary system. The term "Jimi" was first s ...
( zh, t=羈縻制度) implemented in regions of ethnic minorities groups during the
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...
. It was established as a specific political term during the
Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty ( ; zh, c=元朝, p=Yuáncháo), officially the Great Yuan (; Mongolian language, Mongolian: , , literally 'Great Yuan State'), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after Div ...
and was used as a political institution to administer newly acquired territories following their conquest of the
Dali Kingdom The Dali Kingdom, also known as the Dali State (; Bai language, Bai: Dablit Guaif), was a Bai people, Bai dynastic state situated in modern Yunnan province, China, from 937 to 1253. In 1253, it was Mongol conquest of China, conquered by the Mo ...
in 1253. Members of the former Duan imperial clan of the Dali Kingdom were appointed as governors-general with nominal authority using the title "Dali chief steward" ( zh, , p ''Dàlǐ Zǒngguǎn''), and local leaders were co-opted under a variety of titles as administrators of the region.Bin Yang.
Between Winds and Clouds: The Making of Yunnan
', Ch. 4. Columbia University Press.
Some credit the Turkoman governor
Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar Sayyid Ajall Shams al-Din Omar al-Bukhari (; ; 1211–21 August 1279) was Yunnan's first provincial governor, appointed by the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China. Life Shams al-Din was of Central Asian Iranic origin, being a Muslim Khwarezmian f ...
with introducing the system into China. Duan Xingzhi, the last emperor of Dali, was appointed as the first local ruler, and he accepted the stationing of a pacification commissioner there. Duan Xingzhi offered the Yuan maps of Yunnan and led a considerable army to serve as guides for the Yuan army. By the end of 1256,
Yunnan Yunnan; is an inland Provinces of China, province in Southwestern China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 47.2 million (as of 2020). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the Chinese provinces ...
was considered to have been pacified. Under the Yuan dynasty, the native officials, or ''tusi'', were the clients of a patron-client relationship. The patron, the Yuan emperors, exercised jurisdictional control over the client, but not his/her territory itself. The ''tusi'' chieftains and local tribe leaders and kingdoms in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan submitted to Yuan rule and were allowed to keep their titles. The
Han Chinese The Han Chinese, alternatively the Han people, are an East Asian people, East Asian ethnic group native to Greater China. With a global population of over 1.4 billion, the Han Chinese are the list of contemporary ethnic groups, world's la ...
Yang family ruling the
Chiefdom of Bozhou The Chiefdom of Bozhou (), ruled by the Yang clan, was an autonomous ''Tusi'' chiefdom established by Yang Duan () during the Tang dynasty. After he conquered the Bozhou Prefecture (centred on modern Zunyi) from the Nanzhao Kingdom, Yang Duan was ...
which was recognized by the
Song A song is a musical composition performed by the human voice. The voice often carries the melody (a series of distinct and fixed pitches) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs have a structure, such as the common ABA form, and are usu ...
and Tang dynasties also received recognition by the subsequent Yuan and Ming dynasties. The Luo clan in
Shuixi The Water Banquet () is a Chinese set of dishes comprising eight cold and 16 warm dishes cooked in various broths, gravies, and juices. It is considered one of the "Three Wonders of Luoyang"—a former Chinese capital located in Henan—al ...
led by Ahua were recognized by the Yuan emperors, as they were by the Song emperors when led by Pugui and Tang emperors when led by Apei. They descended from the
Shu Han Han (; 221–263), known in historiography as Shu Han ( ) or Ji Han ( "Junior Han"), or often shortened to Shu ( zh, t=蜀, p=Shǔ; Sichuanese Pinyin: ''Su'' < Middle Chinese: *''źjowk'' < Eastern Han Chinese: *''dźok''), was a Dynasties in ...
era king Huoji who helped
Zhuge Liang Zhuge Liang () (181September or October 234), also commonly known by his courtesy name Kongming, was a Chinese statesman, strategist, and inventor who lived through the End of the Han dynasty, end of the Eastern Han dynasty ( 184–220) and t ...
against
Meng Huo Meng Huo ( 210s–220s) was a local leader in the Nanzhong region in the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was popularly depicted as a local leader representing the gentries of the Nanzhong region, but some historia ...
. They were also recognized by the Ming dynasty.


Ming dynasty

In 1364,
Zhu Yuanzhang The Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328– 24 June 1398), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Ming, personal name Zhu Yuanzhang, courtesy name Guorui, was the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1368 to 1398. In ...
conquered
Huguang Huguang was a province of China during the Yuan and Ming dynasties. It was founded by the Yuan dynasty in 1274. During the Yuan dynasty it included the areas of modern Hubei south of the Yangtze river, Hunan, Guizhou, and Guangxi. During the Min ...
. Rather than building a bureaucratic system of his own in Huguang, Zhu chose to keep the native chieftaincy system implemented by the Yuan dynasty. He reappointed many ''tusi'' to the same posts as they had during the Yuan dynasty. After reunifying China under the Ming dynasty and becoming the Hongwu Emperor, he brought this practice to the entire southern border zone of the empire. In 1381, Hongwu sent a force against the last remnant of the forces of the Yuan dynasty, led by the
Prince of Liang Liang Wang may refer to: Chinese royalty In Chinese history, Liang Wang (Prince/King of Liang) may refer to: Warring States period *Monarchs of Wei (state), also known as Liang after 334 BC **King Hui of Wei (died 319 BC), also known as King Hui ...
Basalawarmi Basalawarmi (, , died January 6, 1382), commonly known by his hereditary noble title, the Prince of Liang, was a Yuan dynasty prince and loyalist who fought against the Ming dynasty. He was a descendant of Khökhechi, the fifth son of Kublai Kha ...
, who committed suicide. This left Duan Gong, a successor of Duan Xingzhi, as the last representative of the remaining Yuan forces. He refused to surrender and attempted to have the former realm of the Dali Kingdom recognized as a tributary state. When he was defeated in battle, the surviving Duan brothers were taken captive and escorted to the capital. There they were given an insignificant office in the interior. From then on, "permanent chieftains were replaced by transferable officials," formally appointed by the Ming court. Local leaders were obliged to provide troops, suppress local rebellions, and pay tribute to
Beijing Beijing, Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Peking, is the capital city of China. With more than 22 million residents, it is the world's List of national capitals by population, most populous national capital city as well as ...
annually, biennially, or triennially according to their distance. The post was hereditary as opposed to the
examination system A standardized test is a test that is administered and scored in a consistent or standard manner. Standardized tests are designed in such a way that the questions and interpretations are consistent and are administered and scored in a predetermined ...
in
China proper China proper, also called Inner China, are terms used primarily in the West in reference to the traditional "core" regions of China centered in the southeast. The term was first used by Westerners during the Manchu people, Manchu-led Qing dyn ...
, but succession, promotion, and demotion were all controlled by the Ming administration which required each ''tusi'' to use a seal and an official charter. To establish legitimate successions, ''tusi'' were ordered to list their sons and nephews in AD 1436, to redo the list in quadruplicate in 1441, and to renew the list triennially in 1441 and again in 1485. The Ming dynasty also took over regencies of children younger than 15 in 1489. ''Tusi'' chiefs could sometimes be female according to local customs and had full authority over their own tribesmen, but were kept under supervision by the Ming
Ministry of Personnel The Ministry of Personnel was one of the Three Departments and Six Ministries, Six Ministries under the Department of State Affairs in history of China, imperial China, Korea, and Vietnam. Functions Under the Ming government, Ming, the Ministry ...
or the
Ministry of War Ministry of War may refer to: * Ministry of War (imperial China) ( 600–1912) * Chinese Republic Ministry of War (1912–1946) * Ministry of War (Kingdom of Bavaria) (1808–1919) * Ministry of War (Brazil) (1815–1999) * Ministry of War (Esto ...
. Areas of ''tusi'' administration tended to explode into violence or turmoil intermittently and would invariably provoke Ming military intervention. However, these incidents are generally attributed to provocations by Chinese settlers or corrupt officials and not the fault of the tribes themselves. The native chieftain system was a mutual-beneficial cooperation between the central government and native chieftains. For a quite long time after the foundation of Ming, the rulers knew that the central government could only use limited amount of resources. Having a large number of armies stationed in southern borderland, an area with harsh natural environment and large number of Non-Han people, was too costly for Ming rulers. Thus, they decided to transfer part of ruling power to those local political rulers in exchange for their defense of the border zone.


Civil and military tusis

The Ming ''tusi'' were categorized into civil and military ranks.Pamela Kyle Crossley, Helen F. Siu, Donald S.Sutton (2006). ''Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China''. (Berkeley: University of California Press,2006), pp. 136. The civilian tusi were given the titles of ''Tu Zhifu'' ("native prefecture"), ''Tu Zhizhou'' ("native department") and ''Tu Zhixian'' ("native county") according to the size and population of their domains. Nominally, they had the same rank as their counterparts in the regular administration system The central government gave more autonomy to those military tusi who controlled areas with fewer Han Chinese people and had underdeveloped infrastructure. They pledged loyalty to the Ming emperor but had almost unfettered power within their domains.   All the native chieftains were nominally subordinate to Pacification Commissioners (''Xuanfushi'', ''Xuanweishi'', ''Anfushi''). The Pacification Commissioners were also native chieftains who received their title from the Ming court. As a way of checking their power, Pacification Commissioners were put under the supervision of the Ministry of War. Throughout its 276-year history, the Ming dynasty bestowed a total of 1608 ''tusi'' titles, 960 of which were military-rank and 648 were civilian-rank, the majority of which were in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan. In Tibet, Qinghai and Sichuan, the Ming court sometimes gave both ''tusi'' titles and religious titles to leaders. As a result, those ''tusi'' had double identities. They played both the role of political leaders and religious leaders within their domains. For example, during the reign of the
Yongle Emperor The Yongle Emperor (2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Chengzu of Ming, personal name Zhu Di, was the third List of emperors of the Ming dynasty, emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1402 to 142 ...
, the leader of the Jinchuan monastery assisted the Ming army in a battle against the Mongols. The leader was later given the title ''Yanhua Chanshi'' (), or "Evolved Chan Master", and the power to rule 15 villages as his domain as a reward.邹, 立波 (2010). "从土司封号看嘉绒藏族土司与宗教的关系". ''西南民族大学学报(人文社科版)''. 31 (02): 11–15, p. 11.


Power and privileges of Tusi

After a chieftain was recognized by the central government as a ''tusi'', he would receive a patent of appointment, a bronze official seal, a belt decorated with gold, and a formal attire as uniform.Shin, ''The making of the Chinese state,'' p. 62.          The title of ''tusi'' was hereditary and passed down to an heir. The entire clan of a ''tusi'' enjoyed privileges within the domain. In Ming China, the clan of a ''tusi'' was called ''Guanzu'' ("official clan"). Members of the official clan had higher social ranks than commoners and slaves. Only members of official clan, Han Chinese, and descendants of former officials were allowed to receive education and take examinations. Each ''tusi'' could build and live in a ''
yamen A ''yamen'' (''ya-men''; ; Manchu: ''yamun'') was the administrative office or residence of a local bureaucrat or mandarin in imperial China, Korea, and Vietnam. In some places, such as Kowloon Walled City, Hong Kong, it was named as ''al ...
''. A ''yamen'' was the headquarter of local officials that contained infrastructures, such as the courtroom, sacrificial altar, ancestral hall, granary, offices, and the living quarters of official's family. The structure of government and way of adjudication varied in each domain because of the diversity of ''tusis cultural backgrounds. Normally, there were no statute law in the domain. The will of the tusi was the law. A ''tusi'' had court and jail in his ''yamen'' and could imprison or punish his subjects as long as he thought it was necessary. For instance, Li Depu, the native official of Anping subprefecture in Guangxi province, brutally punished a serf for wearing white stockings because according to his dress rule only official clans were allowed to do so. Commoners ruled by tusi often called them ''Tu Huangdi'' ("local emperor"). This analogy between ''tusi'' and emperors in some way reflected the almost unfettered judicial power of a ''tusi'' in his domain. ''Tusi'' were given the power of collecting tax in their domain. For seasonal religious rituals or sacrifices, ''tusi'' had rights to collect rice and copper coins from each local household. As the head of clan, each ''tusi'' had right to disposal the property of his clan. Apart from bodyguards, ''tusi'' were allowed to maintain a private military, the size of which depended on their domain's resources, to better defend the borderland and suppress rebellion.


Responsibilities of native chieftains during the Ming Dynasty

The ''tusi'' were considered vassals of the Ming emperor. They enjoyed autonomy or semi-autonomy in their domains, but were expected to maintain order and defend the border zones for the Ming dynasty. When the Ming court wanted to start any campaign near their domains, the chieftains were required to lead their private armies and assist the Ming army in the battle. Those soldiers supplied by ''tusi'' were called ''Tu Bing'' ("native soldier"). In the campaign against Annam, the Ming court recruited a large number of native soldiers from the southern provinces. Also, ''tusi'' were required to pay tributes to the Ming court. The periodic tribute goods sent by native chieftains contained various goods: #animals, such as horses and elephants #products made from rare wild animals, such as elephant tusks and rhinoceros’ horns #medicinal herbs #incense #silver utensils #minerals, such as tin


Income of ''tusi''

''Tusi'' received no regular salary or stipend from the government but they were allowed to collect tax from their subjects. These taxes could be paid with crops, textiles and money. Some ''tusi'' required their subjects to pay them copper coin and chickens as gifts at some specific events of their clan. For example, in Anping of Guangxi province, each household was required to donate 400 copper coins during weddings and funerals of members of the ''tusis family.Took, ''A Native Chieftaincy in Southwest China'', p. 97.    ''Tusi'' could get paid by the government for their assistance in the battles, but this did not happen regularly.


Conflicts

In 1388 the Ming–Mong Mao War was fought between the general
Mu Ying Mu Ying (沐英, 1345–1392) was a Chinese military general and politician during the Ming dynasty, and an adopted son of its founder, the Hongwu Emperor. He played an important role in establishing Ming authority in Yunnan. When the Ming dynast ...
and the semi-independent ''tusi'' of
Mong Mao Mong may refer to: People *A proposed original name for the Hmong people, based on the main group, the Mong community *Bob Mong (), American journalist and academic administrator *Henry Mong (), American surgeon and Presbyterian missionary *Mong M ...
, Si Lunfa, located in what is now
Tengchong Tengchong () is a county-level city of Baoshan City, western Yunnan province, People's Republic of China. It is well known for its volcanic activity. The city is named after the town of Tengchong which serves as its political center, previously ...
in southwestern Yunnan. In 1397 the Ming intervened in a Mong Mao succession dispute, known as the Ming–Mong Mao Intervention. In the late 1300s,
Đại Việt Đại Việt (, ; literally Great Việt), was a Vietnamese monarchy in eastern Mainland Southeast Asia from the 10th century AD to the early 19th century, centered around the region of present-day Hanoi. Its early name, Đại Cồ Việt,(ch ...
attacked the tusis on the
Guangxi Guangxi,; officially the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People's Republic of China, located in South China and bordering Vietnam (Hà Giang Province, Hà Giang, Cao Bằn ...
border. This in conjunction with the overthrow of the
Trần dynasty The Trần dynasty (Vietnamese language, Vietnamese: Nhà Trần, chữ Nôm: 茹陳; Vietnamese language, Vietnamese: triều Trần, chữ Hán: ikt:朝ikt:陳, 朝wikt:陳, 陳), officially Đại Việt (Chữ Hán: 大越), was a List ...
by the
Hồ dynasty The Hồ dynasty (Vietnamese: , chữ Nôm: 茹胡; Vietnamese: ''triều'' ''Hồ'', chữ Hán: wikt:朝, 朝wikt:胡, 胡), officially Đại Ngu (; chữ Hán: 大虞), was a short-lived List of Vietnamese dynasties, Vietnamese dynasty cons ...
led to the
Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam The Fourth Era of Northern Domination () was a period of Vietnamese history, from 1407 to 1428, during which Ming-dynasty China ruled Vietnam as the province of Jiaozhi (Giao Chỉ). The Ming established their rule in Vietnam following their ...
. In 1438 the Mong Mao rebelled again and their leader Si Renfa attacked local tusi along the Yunnan border. Si Renfa was defeated in 1442 and captured by the
Ava Ava or AVA may refer to: Places Asia and Oceania * Ava Kingdom, in upper Burma from 1364 to 1555 ** Inwa, formerly Ava, the capital of Ava Kingdom ** Earl of Ava, a British colonial earldom in Burma * Ava, Iran, Gilan Province, a village * Iva ...
king, who turned him over to Ming custody, where he died in 1446. In 1621 the
Yi people The Yi or Nuosu people (Nuosu language, Nuosu: , ; see also #Names and subgroups, § Names and subgroups) are an ethnic group in South China, southern China. Numbering nine million people, they are the seventh largest of the 55 Ethnic minorit ...
instigated the She-An Rebellion in Sichuan and Guizhou, which lasted until 1629 and took an astronomical toll on Ming resources before it was quelled.


''Gaitu Guiliu''

''Gaitu guiliu'' (改土歸流) was a policy of abolishing the rule of local ''tusi'' (土司) and replace (''gai'' 改) them by a "mainstream" (''liu'' 流) direct administration. ''Gaitu guiliu'' was heavily enforced during the Ming and Qing periods. During the Ming dynasty, there were 179 ''tusi'' and 255 ''tuguan'' ( zh, 土官, "native civilian commanders") in Yunnan and titles were generally retained with the exception of punishment for severe crimes. The ''tusi'' were greatly reduced during the Ming-Qing era. By the time of the
Yongzheng Emperor The Yongzheng Emperor (13 December 1678 – 8 October 1735), also known by his temple name Emperor Shizong of Qing, personal name Yinzhen, was the fourth List of emperors of the Qing dynasty, emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the third Qing em ...
, there were only around 41 left in Yunnan, including Cheli,
Gengma Gengma Dai and Va Autonomous County (; ; Wa language, Awa: ) is located in Lincang City, in the west of Yunnan province, China. History The name of the Gengma come from the Pali word "Sinthunath" meaning a place where people follow white horses. P ...
, Longchuan, Ganya (modern Yingjiang), Nandian,
Menglian Menglian Dai, Lahu and Va Autonomous County (; Awa: ) is an autonomous county in the southwest of Yunnan Province, China, bordering Ximeng County to the north, Lancang County to the north, northeast, and east, and Burma's Shan State to the south ...
, Zhefang, Zhanda, Lujiang,
Mangshi Mangshi ( zh, c=芒市, w=Mangshih; ; Jingpho language, Jingpho: ), former name Luxi ( zh, labels=no , c=潞西), is a county-level city and the seat of Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture in western Yunnan province, China. Mangshi has an ...
, Mengmao (
Ruili Ruili ( zh, s=瑞丽 , t=瑞麗 , p=Ruìlì; ; ; ; ), called Möng Mao in Tai, is a county-level city of Dehong Prefecture, in the west of Yunnan province, China. It is a major border crossing between China and Myanmar, with the town of Muse loc ...
), Nalou, Kuirong, Shierguan,
Menghua Weishan Yi and Hui Autonomous County (; Xiao'erjing: ; Bai language, Bai: ) is an autonomous county in the Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture, in northwestern Yunnan Province, China. It was known as Menghua () until the 1950s. Weishan borders Midu C ...
, Jingdong, Mengding, Yongning,
Fuzhou Fuzhou is the capital of Fujian, China. The city lies between the Min River (Fujian), Min River estuary to the south and the city of Ningde to the north. Together, Fuzhou and Ningde make up the Eastern Min, Mindong linguistic and cultural regi ...
, Wandian,
Zhenkang Zhenkang County () is located in western Yunnan province, China, bordering Burma's Shan State to the west. It is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Lincang. Ethnic groups Ethnic Bulang are found in the following villages in ...
, and Beishengzhou. Under Ming administration, the jurisdictional authority of tusi began to be replaced with state territorial authority. The ''tusi'' acted as stop gaps until enough Chinese settlers arrived for a "tipping point" to be reached, and they were then converted into official prefectures and counties to be fully annexed into the central bureaucratic system of the Ming dynasty. This process was known as ''gaitu guiliu'' ( zh, s=改土归流, t=改土歸流), or "turning native rule into regular administration". The most notable example of this was the consolidation of southwestern ''tusi'' chiefdoms into the province of
Guizhou ) , image_skyline = , image_caption = , image_map = Guizhou in China (+all claims hatched).svg , mapsize = 275px , map_alt = Map showing the location of Guizhou Province , map_caption = Map s ...
in 1413. In sum, ''gaitu guiliu'' was the process of replacing ''tusi'' with state-appointed officials, the transition from jurisdictional sovereignty to territorial sovereignty, and the start of formal empire rather than informal.


End

In Guangxi, the
Qing The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
Yongzheng Emperor The Yongzheng Emperor (13 December 1678 – 8 October 1735), also known by his temple name Emperor Shizong of Qing, personal name Yinzhen, was the fourth List of emperors of the Qing dynasty, emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the third Qing em ...
took on a campaign to reform native Zhuang following which 87 out of 128 ''tusis'' were replaced by officials. At the start of the 20th century, there were eight ''tusis'' remaining, all within present-day Daxin County. In 1928, Xincheng, the last tusi in Guangxi was converted to a county, ending the ''gaitu guiliu'' reforms. On 23 January 1953, the P.R. China (PRC) established the Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Region and ended the last Tusi system in
Sipsongpanna Xishuangbanna, sometimes shortened to Banna, is one of the eight autonomous prefectures of Yunnan Province. The autonomous prefecture for Dai people is in the extreme south of Yunnan province, China, bordering both Myanmar and Laos. Xishuangbanna ...
.


Native Chieftain titles

The native chieftain system also fit in the Nine Ranks system (''Jiu Pin''; "九品").The Nine Ranks system is a system of gradations used by regimes from post-Han to Qing.Charles O,Hucker. ''A dictionary of official titles in Imperial China''. (Stanford : Stanford University Press, 1985),p. 4-5.   Under this system, all the officials in the bureaucracy were put into nine major categories: upper-upper, upper-middle, upper-lower, middle-upper, middle-middle, middle-lower, lower-upper, lower-middle, and lower-lower. Each category was given a rank numbered from 1 to 9. The rank 1 is the highest rank and the rank 9 is the lowest. Each rank was divided into two grades: upper () and lower (). The central government gave different titles to native chieftains and these titles had different ranks in the Nine Ranks system:


List of ''tusi''


Chongqing province ''tusi''

*
Chiefdom of Shizhu A chiefdom is a political organization of people represented or governed by a chief. Chiefdoms have been discussed, depending on their scope, as a stateless, state analogue or early state system or institution. Usually a chief's position is ...
( zh, 石砫土司), ruled Shizhu, ended in 1761 when the final tusi became a local magistrate


Guangxi province ''tusi''

*
Chiefdom of Yongshun A chiefdom is a political organization of people represented or governed by a chief. Chiefdoms have been discussed, depending on their scope, as a stateless, state analogue or early state system or institution. Usually a chief's position i ...
( zh, 永順土司), ruled Yizhou District, abolished in 1928 and merged into Yizhou District *Anping *Xincheng *Wancheng


Guizhou province ''tusi''

*
Chiefdom of Bozhou The Chiefdom of Bozhou (), ruled by the Yang clan, was an autonomous ''Tusi'' chiefdom established by Yang Duan () during the Tang dynasty. After he conquered the Bozhou Prefecture (centred on modern Zunyi) from the Nanzhao Kingdom, Yang Duan was ...
( zh, 播州土司), ruled Bozhou (present day
Zunyi Zunyi ( zh, s=遵义 , t=遵義 , p=Zūnyì) is a prefecture-level city in northern Guizhou province, People's Republic of China, situated between the provincial capital Guiyang to the south and Chongqing to the north, also bordering Sichuan to t ...
), abolished after a failed rebellion in 1600 *
Chiefdom of Shuidong Chiefdom of Shuidong (), ruled by the Song clan, was an autonomous ''Tusi'' chiefdom established by Song Jingyang () during the Song dynasty. After he conquered the Manzhou Prefecture (蠻州, centred on modern Kaiyang County) from the Yi peopl ...
( zh, 水東土司), ruled Shuidong (present day Sinan County), abolished after a failed rebellion in 1630 *
Chiefdom of Shuixi Mu'ege (Nasu language, Nasu: ; zh, c=慕俄格) was a Nasu language, Nasu Yi people, Yi chiefdom in modern Guizhou that existed from 300 to 1698. Since 1279, Mu'ege was conquered by the Yuan dynasty and became Chiefdom of Shuixi ( zh, c=水西 ...
( zh, 水西土司), ruled Shuixi (present day
Dafang County Dafang (), called Dading () until 1958, is a county of Guizhou province, China. It is under the administration of Bijie city. Administrative divisions Dafang County is divided into 6 subdistricts, 10 towns A town is a type of a human set ...
), abolished in 1698 * Chiefdom of Sinan ( zh, 思南土司), ruled Sinan, abolished in 1414 * Chiefdom of Sizhou ( zh, 思州土司), ruled Sizhou (present day Cengong County), abolished in 1414


Sichuan province ''tusi''

*
Chiefdom of Canbolang A chiefdom is a political organization of people represented or governed by a chief. Chiefdoms have been discussed, depending on their scope, as a stateless, state analogue or early state system or institution. Usually a chief's position i ...
( zh, 參卜郎千戶所), ruled
Litang County Litang County (; zh, s=理塘县) is southwest of Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, in Sichuan, China, in the traditional Tibetan region of Kham. It contains 7 towns and a population of more than 60,000 in 2020. Due to its elevation and moun ...
* Chiefdom of Dongbohanhu ( zh, 董卜韓胡宣慰使司), ruled
Jinchuan County Jinchuan County or Quqên (; zh, s=金川县) is a county in the northwest of Sichuan Province, China. It is under the administration of the Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. The seat of county is Dowu Town (Lewu). The county spans ...
* Chiefdom of Leipo ( zh, 雷坡長官司), ruled
Leibo County Leibo County ( zh, s=雷波县, ) is a mountainous county of southern Sichuan province, China, along the border with Yunnan. It is under the administration of the Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture, and has a population of 223,000, 91% of whom are ...
* Chiefdom of Manyi ( zh, 蠻夷長官司), ruled Pingshan County * Chiefdom of Mo'erkan ( zh, 磨兒勘招討司), ruled
Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, often shortened to Ganzi Prefecture, is an autonomous prefecture in the western arm of Sichuan province, China bordering Yunnan to the south, the Tibet Autonomous Region to the west, and Gansu to the north ...
and
Markam County Markam County (; zh, s=芒康县) is a county under the jurisdiction of the Chamdo in the Tibet Autonomous Region, China, bordering the provinces of Sichuan to the east and Yunnan to the south. It is the easternmost county-level division of the ...
* Chiefdom of Muchuan ( zh, 沐川長官司), ruled Pingshan County * Chiefdom of Nixi ( zh, 泥溪長官司), ruled Pingshan County * Chiefdom of Pingyi ( zh, 平夷長官司), ruled Pingshan County and Suijiang County * Chiefdom of Yidu ( zh, 夷都長官司), ruled Pingshan County


Yunnan province ''tusi''

*
Chiang Hung Chiang Hung, also known as Sipsongpanna, Keng Hung, or Moeng Lü (; , zh, 車里 or 江洪) was one of the states of Shans under the suzerainty of Burma and China. Chiang Hung was inhabited mainly by Tai Lü people, a branch of the Shans or ...
, ruled Sipsong Panna (present day
Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture Xishuangbanna, sometimes shortened to Banna, is one of the eight autonomous prefectures of Yunnan Province. The autonomous prefecture for Dai people is in the extreme south of Yunnan province, China, bordering both Myanmar and Laos. Xishuangbanna ...
) *
Mong Mao Mong may refer to: People *A proposed original name for the Hmong people, based on the main group, the Mong community *Bob Mong (), American journalist and academic administrator *Henry Mong (), American surgeon and Presbyterian missionary *Mong M ...
*
Kokang Kokang (; ) is a region in Myanmar. It is located in the northern part of Shan State, with the Salween River to its west, and sharing a border with China's Yunnan Province to the east. Its total land area is around . The capital is Laukkai. K ...
-
Chiefdom of Kokang The Chiefdom of Kokang (), ruled by the Chinese Yang clan, was an autonomous ''Tusi'' chiefdom of the Qing dynasty. Its territory is part of modern-day Kokang Kokang (; ) is a region in Myanmar. It is located in the northern part of Shan Sta ...
* Chiefdom of Heqing ( zh, 鶴慶土司), ruled
Heqing County Heqing County (; Bai language, Bai: ) is a county in the Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture located in the northwest of Yunnan Province, China. It borders Yongsheng County to the east, Binchuan County and Dali City to the south, Jianchuan County and E ...
, descendants of
Gao Shengtai Gao Shengtai (died 1096) was the founder and the only emperor of the short-lived Dazhong Kingdom from 1094 until his death in 1096. He was from Cang Mountain in the present-day southern Chinese province of Yunnan. Life In 1080, Duan Lianyi ...
, became a local magistrate in 1683 * Chiefdom of Ganya ( zh, 干崖土司), ruled
Yingjiang County Yingjiang County ( zh, t=盈江縣, s=盈江县, p=Yíngjiāng Xiàn; ; Jingpho: ; ) is a county in Dehong Prefecture, Yunnan province, China, bordering Tengchong to the east, Lianghe County to the southeast, Longchuan County to the south and ...
, abolished in 1949 *
Chiefdom of Gengma A chiefdom is a political organization of people representation (politics), represented or government, governed by a tribal chief, chief. Chiefdoms have been discussed, depending on their scope, as a stateless society, stateless, state (polity) ...
( zh, 耿馬司), ruled
Gengma Dai and Va Autonomous County Gengma Dai and Va Autonomous County (; ; Wa language, Awa: ) is located in Lincang City, in the west of Yunnan province, China. History The name of the Gengma come from the Pali word "Sinthunath" meaning a place where people follow white horses. P ...
, abolished in 1950 *
Chiefdom of Lijiang The Chiefdom of Lijiang (; Naxi language, Naxi: ) was a Nakhi people, Nakhi autonomous Tusi chiefdom that ruled Lijiang during Yuan dynasty, Yuan, Ming dynasty, Ming and Qing dynasty. History At first, Lijiang was ruled by Yuexi Zhao (越巂詔 ...
( zh, 麗江土司), ruled
Lijiang Lijiang ( zh, s= ), formerly romanized as Likiang, is a prefecture-level city in the northwest of Yunnan Province, China. It has an area of and had a population of 1,253,878 at the 2020 census whom 288,787 lived in the built-up area (metro) ...
* Chiefdom of Luomeng ( zh, 落蒙萬戶府), ruled
Shilin Yi Autonomous County Shilin Yi Autonomous County (: Sani: ) is an autonomous county, under the jurisdiction of Kunming, the capital of Yunnan province, China. It borders Yiliang County, Kunming to the west, Luliang County to the northeast, Luxi County, Yunnan to th ...
*
Meng Xon A Master of Engineering (abbreviated MEng, ME, M.E. or M.Eng.) is a professional master's degree in the field of engineering. International variations Australia In Australia, the Master of Engineering degree is a research degree requiring com ...
(), or
Chiefdom of Mangshi The Chiefdom of Mangshi, officially Mangshi ''Yuyi Zhangguansi'' and Mangshi ''Anfusi'', was a Dai people, Dai autonomous Tusi chiefdom in the west of Yunnan, China, from 1443 to 1955. In 1443, the Ming dynasty established Mangshi ''Yuyi Zhangguan ...
( zh, 芒市土司), ruled
Mangshi Mangshi ( zh, c=芒市, w=Mangshih; ; Jingpho language, Jingpho: ), former name Luxi ( zh, labels=no , c=潞西), is a county-level city and the seat of Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture in western Yunnan province, China. Mangshi has an ...
* Chiefdom of Mengban ( zh, 勐板土千總), ruled
Mangshi Mangshi ( zh, c=芒市, w=Mangshih; ; Jingpho language, Jingpho: ), former name Luxi ( zh, labels=no , c=潞西), is a county-level city and the seat of Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture in western Yunnan province, China. Mangshi has an ...
* Chiefdom of Menghai ( zh, 勐海土司), ruled
Menghai County Menghai County (; Tai Lue: ''Meng Haai''; ) is a county under the jurisdiction of Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture, in the far south of Yunnan, China, bordering Burma's Shan State to the south and west. ''Meng'' is as variation of ''Mue ...
* Chiefdom of Menghan ( zh, 勐罕土司), ruled
Jinghong Jinghong (; ; , , ; , ; , ; also formerly romanised as ''Chiang Hung'', ''Chengrung'', ''Cheng Hung'', Jeng Hung, ''Jinghung'', ''Keng Hung'', ''Kiang Hung'' and ''Muangjinghung'') is a city in and the seat of Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefec ...
* Chiefdom of Mengjiaodong ( zh, 勐角董土司), ruled
Cangyuan Va Autonomous County Cangyuan Va Autonomous County (; Awa: ) is under the administration of Lincang City, in the southwest of Yunnan province, China. Wa/Va people are the main inhabitants here. Wa language Wa (Va) is an Austroasiatic language spoken by the W ...
*
Chiefdom of Yao'an Chiefdom of Yao'an (), ruled by the Gao clan, was a Bai autonomous ''Tusi'' chiefdom during Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasty. The chiefdom located at the convergence of Yunnan and Sichuan. The Gao clan were descendants of Gao Shengtai, who was the ...
( zh, 姚安土司), ruled Yao'an County, descendants of
Gao Shengtai Gao Shengtai (died 1096) was the founder and the only emperor of the short-lived Dazhong Kingdom from 1094 until his death in 1096. He was from Cang Mountain in the present-day southern Chinese province of Yunnan. Life In 1080, Duan Lianyi ...
*
Chiefdom of Yongning Chiefdom of Yongning () was a Mosuo autonomous Tusi chiefdom during the Ming and Qing dynasties. The chiefdom was located at present-day Ninglang Yi Autonomous County at the convergence of Yunnan, Sichuan and Tibet. According to legend, the anc ...
( zh, 永寧土司), ruled Yongning (present day
Ninglang Yi Autonomous County Ninglang Yi Autonomous County (; , ''nip lat nuo su zyt jie jux dde xiep'') is located in the northwest of Yunnan province, China, bordering Sichuan province to the north, east and northeast. It is under the administration of Lijiang, Yunnan, Lij ...
) * Chiefdom of Yongsheng ( zh, 永勝土司), ruled Yongsheng County, descendants of
Gao Shengtai Gao Shengtai (died 1096) was the founder and the only emperor of the short-lived Dazhong Kingdom from 1094 until his death in 1096. He was from Cang Mountain in the present-day southern Chinese province of Yunnan. Life In 1080, Duan Lianyi ...
* Chiefdom of Zhefang ( zh, 遮放土司), ruled
Mangshi Mangshi ( zh, c=芒市, w=Mangshih; ; Jingpho language, Jingpho: ), former name Luxi ( zh, labels=no , c=潞西), is a county-level city and the seat of Dehong Dai and Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture in western Yunnan province, China. Mangshi has an ...


Tibetan ''tusi''

*
Chiefdom of Chuchen Chiefdom of Chuchen (; ), also known as Rabden or the Chiefdom of Greater Jinchuan (; ), was an autonomous Gyalrong Tusi chiefdom that ruled Greater Jinchuan (present day Jinchuan County, Sichuan) during the Qing dynasty. The rulers of Chuchen u ...
, or Chiefdom of Greater Jinchuan ( zh, 大金川土司), ruled present day
Jinchuan County Jinchuan County or Quqên (; zh, s=金川县) is a county in the northwest of Sichuan Province, China. It is under the administration of the Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. The seat of county is Dowu Town (Lewu). The county spans ...
, annexed by Qing China in
Jinchuan campaigns The Jinchuan campaigns (), also known as the Suppression of the Jinchuan Hill Peoples (Chinese: 平定兩金川), were two wars between Qing Empire and the rebel forces of Gyalrong chieftains ("Tusi") from the Jinchuan region. The first campai ...
*
Chiefdom of Tsanlha Chiefdom of Tsanlha (; ), also known as Chiefdom of Lesser Jinchuan (; ), was an autonomous Gyalrong chiefdom that ruled Lesser Jinchuan (present day Xiaojin County, Sichuan) during Qing dynasty. The rulers of Tsanlha used the royal title Tsanlh ...
(), or Chiefdom of Lesser Jinchuan ( zh, 小金川土司), ruled present day
Xiaojin County Xiaojin County ( zh, s=小金县), also known as Tsanlha from its Tibetan name (), is a county in the northwest of Sichuan Province, China. It is the southernmost county-level division of the Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. Histor ...
, annexed by Qing China in
Jinchuan campaigns The Jinchuan campaigns (), also known as the Suppression of the Jinchuan Hill Peoples (Chinese: 平定兩金川), were two wars between Qing Empire and the rebel forces of Gyalrong chieftains ("Tusi") from the Jinchuan region. The first campai ...
*
Chiefdom of Bathang Chiefdom of Bathang (), or Chiefdom of Batang (), was an autonomous Tusi chiefdom that ruled Bathang (present day Batang County of Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture) during the Qing dynasty period. Bathang belonged to the Chiefdom of Lijiang ...
(, zh, 巴塘土司), ruled
Batang County Batang County (; zh, s=巴塘县) is a County (People's Republic of China), county located in western Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan, Sichuan Province, China. The main administrative centre is known as Batang, Batang County, Batan ...
, revolted against Qing China in 1905 and was annexed in the next year *
Chiefdom of Lithang Chiefdom of Lithang (), or Chiefdom of Litang (), was an autonomous Tusi chiefdom that ruled Litang (present day Litang County of Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture) during the Qing dynasty period. Lithang, Bathang, Chakla and Derge were cal ...
(, zh, 理塘土司), ruled
Litang County Litang County (; zh, s=理塘县) is southwest of Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, in Sichuan, China, in the traditional Tibetan region of Kham. It contains 7 towns and a population of more than 60,000 in 2020. Due to its elevation and moun ...
, revolted against Qing China in 1905 and was annexed in the next year *
Chiefdom of Béri A chiefdom is a political organization of people represented or governed by a chief. Chiefdoms have been discussed, depending on their scope, as a stateless, state analogue or early state system or institution. Usually a chief's position i ...
() or Chiefdom of Baili ( zh, 白利土司), ruled Béri (present day part of
Garzê County Garzê County or Kardze County (), called Ganzi County in Chinese ( zh, s=甘孜县, p=Gānzī xiàn), is one of the 18 subdivisions of the Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, in northwestern Sichuan province, China. The Yalong River passes ju ...
) *
Kingdom of Chakla Kingdom of Chakla (; ) or Chala was a kingdom in the Tibetan region of Kham. Chakla along with Bathang, Lithang, and Derge were called the "Four Great Native Chiefdoms in Kham" (康區四大土司). During the Qing dynasty it was a Tusi under ...
() or Chiefdom of Mingzheng ( zh, 明正土司), ruled Dartsedo (present day
Kangding Kangding ( zh, c=康定), also known as Dartsedo (), is a county-level city and the seat of Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in Sichuan province of Southwest China. Kangding is on the bank of the Dadu River and has been considered the his ...
) *
Kingdom of Derge The Kingdom of Derge (; ) was a large kingdom in Kham, whose estate was founded in the 13th century by the Gar Clan of Sonam Rinchen in present-day Pelyul County. The Gar Clan traces its lineage to minister Gar Tongtsen at Songsten Gampo's 7th c ...
(; zh, 德格土司), ruled
Dêgê County Dêgê County (; zh, s=德格县) is a county in southern China, which was formerly one of the Kham region's five independent kingdoms - the Kingdom of Derge - but is now administered as a county in Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in far no ...
* Chiefdom of Muli (; zh, 木里土司), ruled present day
Muli Tibetan Autonomous County Muli Tibetan Autonomous County ( zh, s=木里藏族自治县, p=Mùlǐ Zàngzú Zìzhìxiàn; ''smi-li rang-skyong-rdzong''; Yi: ''mup li op zzup zyt jie jux dde xiep'') is in the Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture in the southwest of Sichuan ...
* Kingdom of Powo (; zh, 波密土王), ruled present day
Bomê County Pome County () or Bomê County ( zh, s=波密县) is a county of Nyingchi Prefecture in the south-east of the Tibet Autonomous Region. Historically known as Powo or Poyul, it was the seat of a quasi-independent kingdom until the early 20th cent ...
, annexed by
Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ), or Greater Tibet, is a region in the western part of East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are other ethnic groups s ...
in 1928. Descendants of
Drigum Tsenpo Drigum Tsenpo was the 8th king of Tibet. According to Tibetan mythology, he was the first king of Tibet to lose his immortality when he angered his stable master, Lo-ngam. Legend states that rulers of Tibet descended from heaven to earth ...
. * Chiefdom of Zhuoni (; zh, 卓尼土司), ruled
Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture ( zh, c=甘南藏族自治州, p=Gānnán Zàngzú Zìzhìzhōu; ) is an autonomous prefecture in southern Gansu Province, China, bordering Linxia to the north, Dingxi to the northeast, Longnan to the east ...
* Chiefdom of Duogandan ( zh, 朵甘丹招討司), ruled
Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, often shortened to Ganzi Prefecture, is an autonomous prefecture in the western arm of Sichuan province, China bordering Yunnan to the south, the Tibet Autonomous Region to the west, and Gansu to the north ...
and
Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (, zh, s=玉树藏族自治州, p=Yùshù Zàngzú Zìzhìzhōu, retranscribed into Tibetan as ), also transliterated as Yüxü or Yulshul, is an autonomous prefecture of Southwestern Qinghai Province, China. ...
* Chiefdom of Duogancangtang ( zh, 朵甘倉溏招討司), ruled
Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture, also known as Aba (; Qiang language, Qiang: ; zh, s=阿坝藏族羌族自治州, t=阿壩藏族羌族自治州), is an autonomous prefecture of northwestern Sichuan, bordering Gansu to the north and ...
* Chiefdom of Duogan ( zh, 朵甘宣慰使司), ruled
Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, often shortened to Ganzi Prefecture, is an autonomous prefecture in the western arm of Sichuan province, China bordering Yunnan to the south, the Tibet Autonomous Region to the west, and Gansu to the north ...
* Chiefdom of Duoganchuan ( zh, 朵甘川招討司), ruled
Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, often shortened to Ganzi Prefecture, is an autonomous prefecture in the western arm of Sichuan province, China bordering Yunnan to the south, the Tibet Autonomous Region to the west, and Gansu to the north ...
* Chiefdom of Duogansi ( zh, 朵甘思千戶所), ruled
Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, often shortened to Ganzi Prefecture, is an autonomous prefecture in the western arm of Sichuan province, China bordering Yunnan to the south, the Tibet Autonomous Region to the west, and Gansu to the north ...
* Chiefdom of Duoganlongda ( zh, 朵甘隴答招討司), ruled
Chamdo Chamdo, officially Qamdo () and also known in Chinese as Changdu (), is a prefecture-level city in the eastern part of the Tibet Autonomous Region, China. Its seat is the town of Chengguan in Karuo District. Chamdo is Tibet's third largest c ...
and
Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, often shortened to Ganzi Prefecture, is an autonomous prefecture in the western arm of Sichuan province, China bordering Yunnan to the south, the Tibet Autonomous Region to the west, and Gansu to the north ...
* Kingdom of Lingtsang (; zh, 林蔥土司), ruled
Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, often shortened to Ganzi Prefecture, is an autonomous prefecture in the western arm of Sichuan province, China bordering Yunnan to the south, the Tibet Autonomous Region to the west, and Gansu to the north ...
* Chiefdom of Changhexi ( zh, 長河西千戶所), ruled
Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, often shortened to Ganzi Prefecture, is an autonomous prefecture in the western arm of Sichuan province, China bordering Yunnan to the south, the Tibet Autonomous Region to the west, and Gansu to the north ...
* Chiefdom of Longda ( zh, 隴答衛指揮使司), ruled
Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, often shortened to Ganzi Prefecture, is an autonomous prefecture in the western arm of Sichuan province, China bordering Yunnan to the south, the Tibet Autonomous Region to the west, and Gansu to the north ...
* Chiefdom of Nangqên (; zh, 囊謙土司), ruled
Nangqên County Nangqên County, or Nangchen (, zh, s=囊谦县), is currently a county of the Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and is the southernmost county-level division of Qinghai province, China, bordering the Tibet Autonomous Region to the south. Unti ...
* Chiefdom of Dasima ( zh, 答思麻萬戶府), ruled
Hainan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture Hainan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, formerly known as Tsolho Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture ( zh, c=海南藏族自治州; ), is an autonomous prefecture of Northeastern Qinghai Province in Western China. The prefecture has an area of and its ...


See also

*
Chiefdom A chiefdom is a political organization of people representation (politics), represented or government, governed by a tribal chief, chief. Chiefdoms have been discussed, depending on their scope, as a stateless society, stateless, state (polity) ...
*
Jimi system The Jimi system () or Jimifuzhou () was an autonomous administrative and political organization system used in China between the 7th century and 10th century. It should not be confused with the Chinese tributary system. The term "Jimi" was first s ...
*
Tributary system of China The tributary system of China (Simplified Chinese characters, simplified Chinese: 中华朝贡体系, Traditional Chinese characters, traditional Chinese: 中華朝貢體系, pinyin: Zhōnghuá cháogòng tǐxì), or Cefeng system () at its heig ...
*
Mandala (political model) ''Mandala'' ( is a term used to describe decentralized political systems in medieval Southeast Asia, where authority radiated from a core center rather than being defined by fixed territorial boundaries. This model emphasizes the fluid dist ...
*
Chao Pha Saopha (), also spelled Sawbwa, was the title used by hereditary rulers of Shan states in Upper Myanmar. Chaopha and Chao Fa were similar titles used by the hereditary Tai peoples, Tai rulers in mainland Southeast Asia and the Ahom kingdom in I ...
*
Mueang Mueang ( Ahom: 𑜉𑜢𑜤𑜂𑜫; ''mɯ̄ang'', ), Muang ( ''mɯ́ang'', ), Möng ( Tai Nuea: ᥛᥫᥒᥰ ''möeng''; ''móeng'', ), Meng ( zh, c=猛 or 勐) or Mường (Vietnamese) were pre-modern semi-independent city-states or princip ...


References


Bibliography

* * *Shin, Leo Kwok-yueh (2006). ''The making of the Chinese state: ethnicity and expansion on the Ming borderlands''. Cambridge University Press *Took, Jennifer (2005). ''A Native Chieftaincy in Southwest China: Franchising a Tai Chieftaincy under Tusi System of Late Imperial China''. Leiden: Brill. *Hucker, Charles O. (1985). ''A dictionary of official titles in Imperial China''. Stanford University Press. {{Qing dynasty topics Ethnic groups in China Ethnic groups in Vietnam History of Yunnan History of Guizhou History of Guangxi History of Sichuan History of Chongqing History of Qinghai History of Tibet History of Hubei History of Hunan History of Vietnam