computer science Computer science is the study of computation, information, and automation. Computer science spans Theoretical computer science, theoretical disciplines (such as algorithms, theory of computation, and information theory) to Applied science, ...

, type safety and type soundness are the extent to which a

programming language A programming language is a system of notation for writing computer programs. Programming languages are described in terms of their Syntax (programming languages), syntax (form) and semantics (computer science), semantics (meaning), usually def ...

discourages or prevents

type error In computer programming, a type system is a logical system comprising a set of rules that assigns a property called a ''type'' (for example, integer, floating point, string) to every '' term'' (a word, phrase, or other set of symbols). Usua ...

s. Type safety is sometimes alternatively considered to be a property of facilities of a computer language; that is, some facilities are type-safe and their usage will not result in type errors, while other facilities in the same language may be type-unsafe and a program using them may encounter type errors. The behaviors classified as type errors by a given programming language are usually those that result from attempts to perform operations on

values In ethics and social sciences, value denotes the degree of importance of some thing or action, with the aim of determining which actions are best to do or what way is best to live ( normative ethics), or to describe the significance of different a ...

that are not of the appropriate

data type In computer science and computer programming, a data type (or simply type) is a collection or grouping of data values, usually specified by a set of possible values, a set of allowed operations on these values, and/or a representation of these ...

, e.g., adding a

string String or strings may refer to: *String (structure), a long flexible structure made from threads twisted together, which is used to tie, bind, or hang other objects Arts, entertainment, and media Films * ''Strings'' (1991 film), a Canadian anim ...

to an

integer An integer is the number zero (0), a positive natural number (1, 2, 3, ...), or the negation of a positive natural number (−1, −2, −3, ...). The negations or additive inverses of the positive natural numbers are referred to as negative in ...

when there's no definition on how to handle this case. This classification is partly based on opinion. Type enforcement can be static, catching potential errors at

compile time In computer science, compile time (or compile-time) describes the time window during which a language's statements are converted into binary instructions for the processor to execute. The term is used as an adjective to describe concepts relat ...

, or dynamic, associating type information with values at run-time and consulting them as needed to detect imminent errors, or a combination of both. Dynamic type enforcement often allows programs to run that would be invalid under static enforcement. In the context of static (compile-time) type systems, type safety usually involves (among other things) a guarantee that the eventual value of any expression will be a legitimate member of that expression's static type. The precise requirement is more subtle than this — see, for example,

subtyping In programming language theory, subtyping (also called subtype polymorphism or inclusion polymorphism) is a form of type polymorphism. A ''subtype'' is a datatype that is related to another datatype (the ''supertype'') by some notion of substi ...

and polymorphism for complications.

Definitions

Intuitively, type soundness is captured by

Robin Milner Arthur John Robin Gorell Milner (13 January 1934 – 20 March 2010) was a British computer scientist, and a Turing Award winner. In other words, if a type system is ''sound'', then expressions accepted by that type system must evaluate to a value of the appropriate type (rather than produce a value of some other, unrelated type or crash with a type error). Vijay Saraswat provides the following, related definition: :A language is type-safe if the only operations that can be performed on data in the language are those sanctioned by the type of the data. However, what precisely it means for a program to be "well typed" or to "go wrong" are properties of its static and

dynamic semantics Dynamic semantics is a framework in logic and natural language semantics that treats the meaning of a sentence as its potential to update a context. In static semantics, knowing the meaning of a sentence amounts to knowing when it is true; in dyna ...

, which are specific to each programming language. Consequently, a precise, formal definition of type soundness depends upon the style of formal semantics used to specify a language. In 1994, Andrew Wright and

Matthias Felleisen Matthias Felleisen is a German-American computer science professor and author. He grew up in Germany and immigrated to the US in his twenties. He received his PhD from Indiana University Bloomington under the direction of Daniel P. Friedman. ...

formulated what has become the standard definition and proof technique for type safety in languages defined by

operational semantics Operational semantics is a category of formal programming language semantics in which certain desired properties of a program, such as correctness, safety or security, are verified by constructing proofs from logical statements about its exec ...

, which is closest to the notion of type safety as understood by most programmers. Under this approach, the semantics of a language must have the following two properties to be considered type-sound: ;Progress: A well-typed program never gets "stuck": every expression is either already a value or can be reduced towards a value in some well-defined way. In other words, the program never gets into an undefined state where no further transitions are possible. ;Preservation (or subject reduction): After each evaluation step, the type of each expression remains the same (that is, its type is ''preserved''). A number of other formal treatments of type soundness have also been published in terms of

denotational semantics In computer science, denotational semantics (initially known as mathematical semantics or Scott–Strachey semantics) is an approach of formalizing the meanings of programming languages by constructing mathematical objects (called ''denotations'' ...

and structural operational semantics.

Relation to other forms of safety

In isolation, type soundness is a relatively weak property, as it essentially just states that the rules of a type system are internally consistent and cannot be subverted. However, in practice, programming languages are designed so that well-typedness also entails other, stronger properties, some of which include: * Prevention of illegal operations. For example, a type system can reject the expression 3 / "Hello, World" as invalid, because the division operator is not defined for a

divisor In mathematics, a divisor of an integer n, also called a factor of n, is an integer m that may be multiplied by some integer to produce n. In this case, one also says that n is a '' multiple'' of m. An integer n is divisible or evenly divisibl ...

. * Memory safety ** Type systems can prevent wild pointers that could otherwise arise from a pointer to one type of object being treated as a pointer to another type. ** More sophisticated type systems, such as those supporting

dependent type In computer science and logic, a dependent type is a type whose definition depends on a value. It is an overlapping feature of type theory and type systems. In intuitionistic type theory, dependent types are used to encode logic's quantifiers lik ...

s, can detect and reject out-of-bound accesses, preventing potential buffer overflows. *

Logic error In computer programming, a logic error is a Software bug, bug in a program that causes it to operate incorrectly, but not to terminate abnormally (or crash (computing), crash). A logic error produces unintended or undesired output or other behav ...

s originating in the

semantics Semantics is the study of linguistic Meaning (philosophy), meaning. It examines what meaning is, how words get their meaning, and how the meaning of a complex expression depends on its parts. Part of this process involves the distinction betwee ...

of different types. For instance, inches and millimeters may both be stored as integers, but should not be substituted for each other or added. A type system can enforce two different types of integer for them.

Type-safe and type-unsafe languages

Type safety is usually a requirement for any toy language (i.e. esoteric language) proposed in academic programming language research. Many languages, on the other hand, are too big for human-generated type safety proofs, as they often require checking thousands of cases. Nevertheless, some languages such as

Standard ML Standard ML (SML) is a General-purpose programming language, general-purpose, High-level programming language, high-level, Modular programming, modular, Functional programming, functional programming language with compile-time type checking and t ...

, which has rigorously defined semantics, have been proved to meet one definition of type safety. Some other languages such as

Haskell Haskell () is a general-purpose, statically typed, purely functional programming language with type inference and lazy evaluation. Designed for teaching, research, and industrial applications, Haskell pioneered several programming language ...

are ''believed'' to meet some definition of type safety, provided certain "escape" features are not used (for example Haskell's , used to "escape" from the usual restricted environment in which I/O is possible, circumvents the type system and so can be used to break type safety.)

Type punning In computer science, a type punning is any programming technique that subverts or circumvents the type system of a programming language in order to achieve an effect that would be difficult or impossible to achieve within the bounds of the formal ...

is another example of such an "escape" feature. Regardless of the properties of the language definition, certain errors may occur at run-time due to bugs in the implementation, or in linked

libraries A library is a collection of Book, books, and possibly other Document, materials and Media (communication), media, that is accessible for use by its members and members of allied institutions. Libraries provide physical (hard copies) or electron ...

written in other languages; such errors could render a given implementation type unsafe in certain circumstances. An early version of Sun's

Java virtual machine A Java virtual machine (JVM) is a virtual machine that enables a computer to run Java programs as well as programs written in other languages that are also compiled to Java bytecode. The JVM is detailed by a specification that formally descr ...

was vulnerable to this sort of problem.

Strong and weak typing

Programming languages are often colloquially classified as strongly typed or weakly typed (also loosely typed) to refer to certain aspects of type safety. In 1974, Liskov and Zilles defined a strongly-typed language as one in which "whenever an object is passed from a calling function to a called function, its type must be compatible with the type declared in the called function." In 1977, Jackson wrote, "In a strongly typed language each data area will have a distinct type and each process will state its communication requirements in terms of these types." In contrast, a weakly typed language may produce unpredictable results or may perform implicit type conversion.

Memory management and type safety

Type safety is closely linked to memory safety. For instance, in an implementation of a language that has some type

t

which allows some bit patterns but not others, a

dangling pointer Dangling pointers and wild pointers in computer programming are pointers that do not point to a valid object of the appropriate type. These are special cases of memory safety violations. More generally, dangling references and wild references a ...

memory error allows writing a bit pattern that does not represent a legitimate member of

t

into a dead variable of type

t

, causing a type error when the variable is read. Conversely, if the language is memory-safe, it cannot allow an arbitrary integer to be used as a pointer, hence there must be a separate pointer or reference type. As a minimal condition, a type-safe language must not allow

s across allocations of different types. But most languages enforce the proper use of

abstract data type In computer science, an abstract data type (ADT) is a mathematical model for data types, defined by its behavior (semantics) from the point of view of a '' user'' of the data, specifically in terms of possible values, possible operations on data ...

s defined by programmers even when this is not strictly necessary for memory safety or for the prevention of any kind of catastrophic failure. Allocations are given a type describing its contents, and this type is fixed for the duration of the allocation. This allows type-based alias analysis to infer that allocations of different types are distinct. Most type-safe languages use garbage collection. Pierce says, "it is extremely difficult to achieve type safety in the presence of an explicit deallocation operation", due to the dangling pointer problem. However

Rust Rust is an iron oxide, a usually reddish-brown oxide formed by the reaction of iron and oxygen in the catalytic presence of water or air moisture. Rust consists of hydrous iron(III) oxides (Fe2O3·nH2O) and iron(III) oxide-hydroxide (FeO(OH) ...

is generally considered type-safe and uses a borrow checker to achieve memory safety, instead of garbage collection.

Type safety in object oriented languages

object oriented Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm based on the concept of '' objects''. Objects can contain data (called fields, attributes or properties) and have actions they can perform (called procedures or methods and impleme ...

languages type safety is usually intrinsic in the fact that a

type system In computer programming, a type system is a logical system comprising a set of rules that assigns a property called a ''type'' (for example, integer, floating point, string) to every '' term'' (a word, phrase, or other set of symbols). Usu ...

is in place. This is expressed in terms of class definitions. A

class Class, Classes, or The Class may refer to: Common uses not otherwise categorized * Class (biology), a taxonomic rank * Class (knowledge representation), a collection of individuals or objects * Class (philosophy), an analytical concept used d ...

essentially defines the structure of the objects derived from it and an

API An application programming interface (API) is a connection between computers or between computer programs. It is a type of software interface, offering a service to other pieces of software. A document or standard that describes how to build ...

as a ''contract'' for handling these objects. Each time a new object is created it will ''comply'' with that contract. Each function that exchanges objects derived from a specific class, or implementing a specific interface, will adhere to that contract: hence in that function the operations permitted on that object will be only those defined by the methods of the class the object implements. This will guarantee that the object integrity will be preserved. Exceptions to this are object oriented languages that allow dynamic modification of the object structure, or the use of reflection to modify the content of an object to overcome the constraints imposed by the class methods definitions.

Type safety issues in specific languages

Ada

Ada was designed to be suitable for

embedded system An embedded system is a specialized computer system—a combination of a computer processor, computer memory, and input/output peripheral devices—that has a dedicated function within a larger mechanical or electronic system. It is e ...

device driver In the context of an operating system, a device driver is a computer program that operates or controls a particular type of device that is attached to a computer or automaton. A driver provides a software interface to hardware devices, enabli ...

s and other forms of system programming, but also to encourage type-safe programming. To resolve these conflicting goals, Ada confines type-unsafety to a certain set of special constructs whose names usually begin with the string . Unchecked_Deallocation can be effectively banned from a unit of Ada text by applying to this unit. It is expected that programmers will use constructs very carefully and only when necessary; programs that do not use them are type-safe. The SPARK programming language is a subset of Ada eliminating all its potential ambiguities and insecurities while at the same time adding statically checked contracts to the language features available. SPARK avoids the issues with

s by disallowing allocation at run time entirely. Ada2012 adds statically checked contracts to the language itself (in form of pre-, and post-conditions, as well as type invariants).

C

The

C programming language C (''pronounced'' '' – like the letter c'') is a general-purpose programming language. It was created in the 1970s by Dennis Ritchie and remains very widely used and influential. By design, C's features cleanly reflect the capabilities of ...

is type-safe in limited contexts; for example, a compile-time error is generated when an attempt is made to convert a pointer to one type of structure to a pointer to another type of structure, unless an explicit cast is used. However, a number of very common operations are non-type-safe; for example, the usual way to print an integer is something like printf("%d", 12), where the %d tells printf at run-time to expect an integer argument. (Something like printf("%s", 12), which tells the function to expect a pointer to a character-string and yet supplies an integer argument, may be accepted by compilers, but will produce undefined results.) This is partially mitigated by some compilers (such as gcc) checking type correspondences between printf arguments and format strings. In addition, C, like Ada, provides unspecified or undefined explicit conversions; and unlike in Ada, idioms that use these conversions are very common, and have helped to give C a type-unsafe reputation. For example, the standard way to allocate memory on the heap is to invoke a memory allocation function, such as

malloc 



C dynamic memory allocation refers to performing  manual memory management for dynamic memory allocation in the  C programming language via a group of functions in the C standard library, namely , , ,  and .

The  C++ programming language includ ...

, with an argument indicating how many bytes are required. The function returns an untyped pointer (type void *), which the calling code must explicitly or implicitly cast to the appropriate pointer type. Pre-standardized implementations of C required an explicit cast to do so, therefore the code

(struct foo *) malloc(sizeof 


sizeof is a  unary operator in the  C and  C++ programming languages that evaluates to the  storage size of an  expression or a data type, measured in units sized as char. Consequently, the expression sizeof(char) evaluates to 1. The number of  b ...
(struct foo))

became the accepted practice.

C++

Some features of C++ that promote more type-safe code: * The new operator returns a pointer of type based on operand, whereas

malloc C dynamic memory allocation refers to performing manual memory management for dynamic memory allocation in the C programming language via a group of functions in the C standard library, namely , , , and . The C++ programming language includ ...

returns a void pointer. * C++ code can use virtual functions and templates to achieve polymorphism without void pointers. * Safer casting operators, such as dynamic cast that performs run-time type checking. * C++11 strongly-typed enumerations cannot be implicitly converted to or from integers or other enumeration types. * C++ explicit constructors and C++11 explicit conversion operators prevent implicit type conversions.

C#

C# is type-safe. It has support for untyped pointers, but this must be accessed using the "unsafe" keyword which can be prohibited at the compiler level. It has inherent support for run-time cast validation. Casts can be validated by using the "as" keyword that will return a null reference if the cast is invalid, or by using a C-style cast that will throw an exception if the cast is invalid. See C Sharp conversion operators. Undue reliance on the

object Object may refer to: General meanings * Object (philosophy), a thing, being, or concept ** Object (abstract), an object which does not exist at any particular time or place ** Physical object, an identifiable collection of matter * Goal, an a ...

type (from which all other types are derived) runs the risk of defeating the purpose of the C# type system. It is usually better practice to abandon object references in favour of generics, similar to templates in C++ and generics in Java.

Java

The Java language is designed to enforce type safety. Anything in Java ''happens'' inside an

and each object is an instance of a

. To implement the ''type safety'' enforcement, each object, before usage, needs to be allocated. Java allows usage of

primitive types In computer science, primitive data types are a set of basic data types from which all other data types are constructed. Specifically it often refers to the limited set of data representations in use by a particular processor, which all compiled ...

but only inside properly allocated objects. Sometimes a part of the type safety is implemented indirectly: e.g. the class BigDecimal represents a floating point number of arbitrary precision, but handles only numbers that can be expressed with a finite representation. The operation BigDecimal.divide() calculates a new object as the division of two numbers expressed as BigDecimal. In this case if the division has no finite representation, as when one computes e.g. 1/3=0.33333..., the divide() method can raise an exception if no rounding mode is defined for the operation. Hence the library, rather than the language, guarantees that the object respects the contract implicit in the class definition.

Standard ML

has rigorously defined semantics and is known to be type-safe. However, some implementations, including Standard ML of New Jersey (SML/NJ), its syntactic variant Mythryl and MLton, provide libraries that offer unsafe operations. These facilities are often used in conjunction with those implementations'

foreign function interface A foreign function interface (FFI) is a mechanism by which a program written in one programming language can call routines or make use of services written or compiled in another one. An FFI is often used in contexts where calls are made into a bin ...

s to interact with non-ML code (such as C libraries) that may require data laid out in specific ways. Another example is the SML/NJ interactive toplevel itself, which must use unsafe operations to execute ML code entered by the user.

Modula-2

Modula-2 is a strongly-typed language with a design philosophy to require any unsafe facilities to be explicitly marked as unsafe. This is achieved by "moving" such facilities into a built-in pseudo-library called SYSTEM from where they must be imported before they can be used. The import thus makes it visible when such facilities are used. Unfortunately, this was not consequently implemented in the original language report and its implementation. There still remained unsafe facilities such as the type cast syntax and variant records (inherited from Pascal) that could be used without prior import. The difficulty in moving these facilities into the SYSTEM pseudo-module was the lack of any identifier for the facility that could then be imported since only identifiers can be imported, but not syntax. IMPORT SYSTEM; (* allows the use of certain unsafe facilities: *) VAR word : SYSTEM.WORD; addr : SYSTEM.ADDRESS; addr := SYSTEM.ADR(word); (* but type cast syntax can be used without such import *) VAR i : INTEGER; n : CARDINAL; n := CARDINAL(i); (* or *) i := INTEGER(n); The ISO Modula-2 standard corrected this for the type cast facility by changing the type cast syntax into a function called CAST which has to be imported from pseudo-module SYSTEM. However, other unsafe facilities such as variant records remained available without any import from pseudo-module SYSTEM. IMPORT SYSTEM; VAR i : INTEGER; n : CARDINAL; i := SYSTEM.CAST(INTEGER, n); (* Type cast in ISO Modula-2 *) A recent revision of the language applied the original design philosophy rigorously. First, pseudo-module SYSTEM was renamed to UNSAFE to make the unsafe nature of facilities imported from there more explicit. Then all remaining unsafe facilities where either removed altogether (for example variant records) or moved to pseudo-module UNSAFE. For facilities where there is no identifier that could be imported, enabling identifiers were introduced. In order to enable such a facility, its corresponding enabling identifier must be imported from pseudo-module UNSAFE. No unsafe facilities remain in the language that do not require import from UNSAFE. IMPORT UNSAFE; VAR i : INTEGER; n : CARDINAL; i := UNSAFE.CAST(INTEGER, n); (* Type cast in Modula-2 Revision 2010 *) FROM UNSAFE IMPORT FFI; (* enabling identifier for foreign function interface facility *) <*FFI="C"*> (* pragma for foreign function interface to C *)

Pascal

Pascal has had a number of type safety requirements, some of which are kept in some compilers. Where a Pascal compiler dictates "strict typing", two variables cannot be assigned to each other unless they are either compatible (such as conversion of integer to real) or assigned to the identical subtype. For example, if you have the following code fragment: type TwoTypes = record I: Integer; Q: Real; end; DualTypes = record I: Integer; Q: Real; end; var T1, T2: TwoTypes; D1, D2: DualTypes; Under strict typing, a variable defined as is ''not compatible'' with (because they are not identical, even though the components of that user defined type are identical) and an assignment of T1 := D2; is illegal. An assignment of T1 := T2; would be legal because the subtypes they are defined to ''are'' identical. However, an assignment such as T1.Q := D1.Q; would be legal.

Common Lisp

In general,

Common Lisp Common Lisp (CL) is a dialect of the Lisp programming language, published in American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard document ''ANSI INCITS 226-1994 (S2018)'' (formerly ''X3.226-1994 (R1999)''). The Common Lisp HyperSpec, a hyperli ...

is a type-safe language. A Common Lisp compiler is responsible for inserting dynamic checks for operations whose type safety cannot be proven statically. However, a programmer may indicate that a program should be compiled with a lower level of dynamic type-checking. A program compiled in such a mode cannot be considered type-safe.

C++ examples

The following examples illustrates how C++ cast operators can break type safety when used incorrectly. The first example shows how basic data types can be incorrectly cast: #include using namespace std; int main () In this example, reinterpret_cast explicitly prevents the compiler from performing a safe conversion from integer to floating-point value. When the program runs it will output a garbage floating-point value. The problem could have been avoided by instead writing float fval = ival; The next example shows how object references can be incorrectly downcast: #include using namespace std; class Parent ; class Child1 : public Parent ; class Child2 : public Parent ; int main () The two child classes have members of different types. When downcasting a parent class pointer to a child class pointer, then the resulting pointer may not point to a valid object of correct type. In the example, this leads to garbage value being printed. The problem could have been avoided by replacing static_cast with dynamic_cast that throws an exception on invalid casts.

Notes

References

* * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Type Safety Programming language topics Type theory Articles with example Pascal code