Trung Sisters' Rebellion
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The Trưng sisters' rebellion was an uprising in the
Jiaozhi Jiaozhi (standard Chinese, pinyin: ''Jiāozhǐ''), or , was a historical region ruled by various Chinese dynasties, corresponding to present-day northern Vietnam. The kingdom of Nanyue (204–111 BC) set up the Jiaozhi Commandery (; , ch ...
province of
Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...
(today Northern Vietnam) between 40 CE and 43 CE. In 40 CE, the Lạc Việt leader Trưng Trắc and her sister Trưng Nhị rebelled against Chinese authorities. In 42 CE,
Han China The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...
dispatched General Ma Yuan to lead an army to strike down the uprising. In 43 CE, the Han army fully suppressed the uprising and regained complete control. The Trưng sisters were captured and beheaded by the Han forces, although Vietnamese chronicles of the defeat records that the two sisters, having lost to Han forces, decided to commit suicide by jumping down the Hát Giang river, so as not to surrender to the Han.


Background

One prominent group of ancient people in Northern Vietnam (
Jiaozhi Jiaozhi (standard Chinese, pinyin: ''Jiāozhǐ''), or , was a historical region ruled by various Chinese dynasties, corresponding to present-day northern Vietnam. The kingdom of Nanyue (204–111 BC) set up the Jiaozhi Commandery (; , ch ...
, Tonkin, Red River Delta region) during the
Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...
's rule over Vietnam was called the
Lac Viet Lac may refer to: Places Africa * Lac Region, a district in Chad * Lac Prefecture, a district in Chad America * Rivière du Lac, a tributary of the Montmorency River, in Capitale-Nationale, Quebec, Canada Europe * Laç, a city in Albania * Lac ...
or the Luòyuè in Chinese annals. The Luoyue were considered a Baiyue-related group in the region, and it is hard to say whether Luoyue were a tribal confederation or a collective designation for various unaffiliated Yue tribes who inhabited in North Vietnam. They practiced non-Chinese tribal ways, matrilineality, facial
tattooing A tattoo is a form of body modification made by inserting tattoo ink, dyes, or pigments, either indelible or temporary, into the dermis layer of the Human skin, skin to form a design. Tattoo artists create these designs using several Process of ...
, and
slash-and-burn Slash-and-burn agriculture is a form of shifting cultivation that involves the cutting and burning of plants in a forest or woodland to create a Field (agriculture), field called a swidden. The method begins by cutting down the trees and woody p ...
agriculture. According to French
sinologist Sinology, also referred to as China studies, is a subfield of area studies or East Asian studies involved in social sciences and humanities research on China. It is an academic discipline that focuses on the study of the Chinese civilizatio ...
Georges Maspero, some Chinese immigrants arrived and settled along the Red River during the usurpation of
Wang Mang Wang Mang (45 BCE6 October 23 CE), courtesy name Jujun, officially known as the Shijianguo Emperor (), was the founder and the only emperor of the short-lived Chinese Xin dynasty. He was originally an official and consort kin of the ...
(9–25 CE) and the early
Eastern Han The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...
, while two Han governors of Jiaozhi Xi Guang (?–30 CE) and Ren Yan, with support from Chinese scholar-immigrants, conducted the first "
sinicization Sinicization, sinofication, sinification, or sinonization (from the prefix , 'Chinese, relating to China') is the process by which non-Chinese societies or groups are acculturated or assimilated into Chinese culture, particularly the language, ...
" on the local tribes by introducing Chinese-style marriage, opening the first Chinese schools, and introducing Chinese philosophies, therefore provoking cultural conflict. American philologist Stephen O'Harrow indicates that the introduction of Chinese-style marriage customs might have come in the interest of transferring land rights to Chinese immigrants in the area, replacing the matrilineal tradition of the area. The Trưng sisters were daughters of a wealthy aristocratic family of Lac ethnicity. Their father had been a Lac lord in Mê Linh district (modern-day Mê Linh District,
Hanoi Hanoi ( ; ; ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Vietnam, second-most populous city of Vietnam. The name "Hanoi" translates to "inside the river" (Hanoi is bordered by the Red River (Asia), Red and Black River (Asia), Black Riv ...
). Trưng Trắc (Zheng Ce)'s husband was Thi Sách (Shi Suo), was also the Lac lord of Chu Diên (modern-day Khoái Châu District, Hưng Yên Province). Su Ding (governor of Jiaozhi 37–40 CE), the Chinese governor of
Jiaozhi Jiaozhi (standard Chinese, pinyin: ''Jiāozhǐ''), or , was a historical region ruled by various Chinese dynasties, corresponding to present-day northern Vietnam. The kingdom of Nanyue (204–111 BC) set up the Jiaozhi Commandery (; , ch ...
province at the time, is remembered by his cruelty and tyranny. According to Hou Hanshu, Thi Sách was "of a fierce temperament". Trưng Trắc, who was likewise described as "possessing mettle and courage", fearlessly stirred her husband to action. As a result, Su Ding attempted to restrain Thi Sách with laws, literally beheading him without trial. Trưng Trắc became the central figure in mobilizing the Lac lords against the Chinese.


Revolt

In March of 40 CE, Trưng Trắc and her younger sister Trưng Nhị (Zheng Er), led the
Lac Viet Lac may refer to: Places Africa * Lac Region, a district in Chad * Lac Prefecture, a district in Chad America * Rivière du Lac, a tributary of the Montmorency River, in Capitale-Nationale, Quebec, Canada Europe * Laç, a city in Albania * Lac ...
people to rise up in rebellion against the Han. The Hou Han Shu recorded that Trưng Trắc launched the rebellion to avenge the killing of her dissident husband. Other sources indicate that Trưng Trắc's movement towards rebellion was influenced by the loss of land intended for her inheritance due to the replacement of traditional matrilineal customs. It began at the Red River Delta, but soon spread to other Lac tribes and non-Han people from an area stretching from Hepu to Rinan. Chinese settlements were overrun, and Su Ting fled. The uprising gained the control of about sixty-five towns and settlements. Trưng Trắc was proclaimed as the
queen regnant A queen regnant (: queens regnant) is a female monarch, equivalent in rank, title and position to a king. She reigns ''suo jure'' (in her own right) over a realm known as a kingdom; as opposed to a queen consort, who is married to a reigning ...
. Even though she gained control over the countryside, she was not able to capture major fortified towns.


Han counterattack

The Han government (situated in
Luoyang Luoyang ( zh, s=洛阳, t=洛陽, p=Luòyáng) is a city located in the confluence area of the Luo River and the Yellow River in the west of Henan province, China. Governed as a prefecture-level city, it borders the provincial capital of Zheng ...
) responded rather slowly to the emerging situation. In May or June of 41 CE, Emperor Guangwu gave the orders to initiate a military campaign. The strategic importance of Jiaozhi is underscored by the fact that the Han sent their most trusted generals, Ma Yuan and Duan Zhi to suppress the rebellion. Ma Yuan was given the title ''Fubo Jiangjun'' (伏波將軍; General who Calms the Waves). He would later go down in Chinese history as a great official who brought Han civilization to the barbarians. Ma Yuan and his staff began mobilizing a Han army in southern China. It consisted 20,000 regulars and 12,000 regional auxiliaries. From Guangdong, Ma Yuan dispatched a fleet of supply ships along the coast. In the spring of 42 CE, the imperial army reached high ground at Lãng Bạc, in the Tiên Du mountains of what is now
Bắc Ninh Bắc Ninh () is a city in the Northern Vietnam, northern part of Vietnam and is the capital of Bắc Ninh province. The city is the cultural, administrative and commercial center of the province. The city area is 82.60 square km, with a populat ...
. Yuan's forces battled the Trưng sisters, beheaded several thousand of Trưng Trắc's partisans, while more than ten thousand surrendered to him. The Chinese general pushed on to victory. During the campaign he explained in a letter to his nephews how "greatly" he detested groundless criticism of proper authority. Yuan pursued Trưng Trắc and her retainers to Jinxi Tản Viên, where her ancestral estates were located; and defeated them several times. Increasingly isolated and cut off from supplies, the two women were unable to sustain their last stand and the Chinese captured both sisters in early 43 CE. Trưng Trắc's husband, Thi Sách, first escaped to Mê Linh, then onward to a place called Jinxijiu and was not captured until three years later. The rebellion was brought under control by April or May 43 CE. Ma Yuan had Trưng Trắc and Trưng Nhị decapitated, and sent their heads to the Han court at
Luoyang Luoyang ( zh, s=洛阳, t=洛陽, p=Luòyáng) is a city located in the confluence area of the Luo River and the Yellow River in the west of Henan province, China. Governed as a prefecture-level city, it borders the provincial capital of Zheng ...
. By the end of 43 CE, the Han army had taken full control over the region by defeating the last pockets of resistance. Yuan reported his victories, and added: "Since I came to Jiaozhi, the current troop has been the most magnificent."


Aftermath

In their reconquest of Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen, Han forces also appear to have massacred most of the Lạc Việt aristocracy, beheading five to ten thousand people and deporting several hundred families to China. After the Trưng sisters were dead, Ma Yuan spent most of the year 43 building up Han administration in the Red River Delta and preparing the local society for direct Han rule. General Ma Yuan aggressively sinicized the culture and customs of the local people, removing their tribal ways, so they could be more easily governed by Han China. He melted down the Lac bronze drums, their chieftains' symbol of authority, to cast a statue of a horse, which he presented to Emperor Guangwu when he returned to Luoyang in autumn, 44 CE. In Ma Yuan's letter to his nephews while campaigning in Jiaozhi, he quoted a Chinese saying: "If you do not succeed in sculpting a swan, the result will still look like a duck." Ma Yuan then divided the Tây Vu (Xiyu, modern day Phú Thọ province) County into Fengxi County and Wanghai County, seized the last domain of the last Lạc monarch of Cổ Loa. Later, Chinese historians writing of Ma Yuan's expedition referred to the Luo/Lạc as the "Luoyue" or simply as the "Yue". " Yue" had become a category of Chinese perception designating myriad groups of non-Chinese peoples in the south. The Chinese considered the Lac to be a "Yue" people, and it was customary to attribute certain cliched cultural traits to the Lạc in order to identify them as "Yue".


Demise of the Dong Son culture and the rise of Li-Lao culture

The Trung sisters' defeat in 43 CE also subsequently coincided with the end of Dong Son culture and Dong Son metallurgical
drum The drum is a member of the percussion group of musical instruments. In the Hornbostel–Sachs classification system, it is a membranophone. Drums consist of at least one membrane, called a drumhead or drum skin, that is stretched over a ...
tradition that had been flourished in Northern Vietnam for centuries, as the Han tightened their grip over the region, culminating in process that transformed the non-Sinic people. Local Red River Delta elites pledged themselves to Chinese cultural norms and Chinese hierarchy. Chinese techniques, religions, and taxation were forced upon or voluntarily embraced by indigenous tribes. The regions' demographics and history shifted. Jiaozhou or the Red River Delta gradually became semi-integrated into Chinese empires through Han to Jin dynasty. No large-scale uprising occurred in the region for roughly 400 years. The successful reconquest of Northern Vietnam also gave the Han dynasty secured gateways to access southern maritime trade routes and establish ties with various polities in Southeast Asia and beyond, and increasing relationships between China and the Indian Ocean world. The Han records mention a distant Daqin (whether Rome or not) embassy came from the South and entered the Han empire through Rinan (Central Vietnam) in 166 CE. Along with trade and knowledge, religions such as Buddhism possibly spread to China via Northern Vietnam from southern sea, along with obvious inland Silk Road, during the second and third centuries. The decline of Dong Son culture in the Red River Delta led to the rise of the
Li Lao drum The Li-Lao bronze drums or Heger type II drums are a type of ancient bronze drums found in Southern China and Northern Vietnam invented and used by Kra-Dai languages, Tai-Kadai-speaking (or specifically Tai languages, Tai-speaking) ethnic groups w ...
culture (200–750 CE) in the mountainous areas between the
Pearl A pearl is a hard, glistening object produced within the soft tissue (specifically the mantle (mollusc), mantle) of a living Exoskeleton, shelled mollusk or another animal, such as fossil conulariids. Just like the shell of a mollusk, a pear ...
and the Red River, or the People between the Two Rivers, stretching from present-day
Guangdong ) means "wide" or "vast", and has been associated with the region since the creation of Guang Prefecture in AD 226. The name "''Guang''" ultimately came from Guangxin ( zh, labels=no, first=t, t= , s=广信), an outpost established in Han dynasty ...
,
Guangxi Guangxi,; officially the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People's Republic of China, located in South China and bordering Vietnam (Hà Giang Province, Hà Giang, Cao Bằn ...
, to Northern Vietnam. The culture was known for casting large Heger type II drums that share many similarities with Dong Son's Heger type I drums. Lǐ (俚) and Lǎo (獠) are interchangeably perceived as non-Chinese and contemporary sources did not prefer a specific ethnicity for them, the culture could have been multiethnic as modern Vietnam and Southern China are, made up by primary Kra-Dai and Austroasiatic speaking tribes, but some probably were ancestors of modern-day Li people in
Hainan Hainan is an island provinces of China, province and the southernmost province of China. It consists of the eponymous Hainan Island and various smaller islands in the South China Sea under the province's administration. The name literally mean ...
. After the collapse of the Han dynasty in the early third century CE and China being in a state of turmoil for approximately 400 years, no Chinese dynasty was strong enough to exert its control and influence over this region until the powerful
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...
. Meanwhile numerous independent ''Dong'' chiefdoms representing the Li Lao drum culture's autonomy created the voidness of imperial authorities in the regions that were inside the empire. According to researcher Catherine Churchman in her 2016 book ''The People Between the Rivers: The Rise and Fall of a Bronze Drum Culture, 200–750 CE'', due to Li-Lao culture's massive dominantly influences, instead of becoming more assimilated into China, the Red River Delta from 200 to 750 CE experienced a reverse effect on
sinicization Sinicization, sinofication, sinification, or sinonization (from the prefix , 'Chinese, relating to China') is the process by which non-Chinese societies or groups are acculturated or assimilated into Chinese culture, particularly the language, ...
or "de-Sinifying effect", therefore the history of sinicization of the region should be reconsidered.


Perception

The Trưng sisters' rebellion marked a brilliant epoch for women in ancient southern China and reflected the importance of women in early Vietnamese society. One reason listed by medieval Confucian scholars for the defeat is the desertion by rebels because they did not believe they could win under a woman's leadership. The fact that women were in charge was blamed as a reason for the defeat by historical Vietnamese texts written during the
medieval era In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and t ...
when Vietnamese society had become a Confucian
patriarchy Patriarchy is a social system in which positions of authority are primarily held by men. The term ''patriarchy'' is used both in anthropology to describe a family or clan controlled by the father or eldest male or group of males, and in fem ...
. Modern Vietnamese historians and social activists however retroactively ridiculed and mocked men for doing nothing while "mere girls", whom they viewed with revulsion, took up the banner of revolt. The Vietnamese poem which talks about the revolt of the Trung Sisters while the men did nothing was not intended to praise women nor view war as women's work as it has been wrongly interpreted. The Vietnamese proverb ''Giặc đến nhà, đàn bà cũng đánh'' ("when the enemy is at the gate, even the women go out fighting") has been recited as evidence of Lạc women's respected status. In the contrary, other interpretations of the quote state that it only means fighting in war is inappropriate for women and its only when the situation is so desperate that the war has spread to their home then women should enter the war.


See also

* Lady Triệu * Phùng Thị Chính *
Copper columns of Ma Yuan Copper columns of Ma Yuan () were a pair of copper columns erected by General Ma Yuan (Han dynasty), Ma Yuan of Han China after his suppression of the Trung sisters' rebellion in 43 CE. The columns stood at southern frontier of Tượng Lâm (Xiang ...
* Bùi Thị Xuân *
Matriarchy Matriarchy is a social system in which positions of Power (social and political), power and Social privilege, privilege are held by women. In a broader sense it can also extend to moral authority, social privilege, and control of property. Whil ...
*
Feminism Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideology, ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social gender equality, equality of the sexes. Feminism holds the position that modern soci ...


Notes


Citation


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{Han Dynasty topics 43 40s conflicts 1st-century rebellions Rebellions in the Han dynasty Military campaigns involving the Han dynasty Military campaigns involving Vietnam Emperor Guangwu of Han China–Vietnam relations Trưng sisters