Tristram's starling (''Onychognathus tristramii''), also known as Dead Sea starling or Tristram's grackle, is a species of

starling Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine (perching) birds known for the often dark, glossy iridescent sheen of their plumage; their complex vocalizations including mimicking; and their distinctive, often elaborate swarming behavior, know ...

native to the

Middle East The Middle East (term originally coined in English language) is a geopolitical region encompassing the Arabian Peninsula, the Levant, Turkey, Egypt, Iran, and Iraq. The term came into widespread usage by the United Kingdom and western Eur ...

. It is the only member of the genus ''

Onychognathus ''Onychognathus'' is a genus of starlings native to the Afrotropical realm. All the species are quite similar, and characterised by rufous primary wing feathers, very obvious in flight. The males are typically mainly glossy black, and the females ...

'' found mainly outside of Africa.Paz, U. (1987). The birds of Israel. Helm. The species is named after Reverend

Henry Baker Tristram Henry Baker Tristram FRS (11 May 1822 – 8 March 1906) was an English clergyman, Bible scholar, traveller and ornithologist. As a parson-naturalist he was an early, but short-lived, supporter of Darwinism, attempting to reconcile evolution an ...

, who collected natural history specimens.

Distribution and habitat

This bird is found in deserts in

Israel Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in West Asia. It Borders of Israel, shares borders with Lebanon to the north, Syria to the north-east, Jordan to the east, Egypt to the south-west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. Isr ...

Palestine Palestine, officially the State of Palestine, is a country in West Asia. Recognized by International recognition of Palestine, 147 of the UN's 193 member states, it encompasses the Israeli-occupied West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and th ...

Jordan Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, is a country in the Southern Levant region of West Asia. Jordan is bordered by Syria to the north, Iraq to the east, Saudi Arabia to the south, and Israel and the occupied Palestinian ter ...

, northeastern

Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...

(

Sinai Peninsula The Sinai Peninsula, or simply Sinai ( ; ; ; ), is a peninsula in Egypt, and the only part of the country located in Asia. It is between the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Red Sea to the south, and is a land bridge between Asia and Afri ...

), (

NEOM Neom (styled NEOM; , ) is an arcology and planned city being built by Saudi Arabia in Tabuk Province. Launched in 2017 by crown prince Mohammad bin Salman, the site is at the northern tip of the Red Sea, due east of Egypt across the Gulf of A ...

) ( agna , western

Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in West Asia. Located in the centre of the Middle East, it covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula and has a land area of about , making it the List of Asian countries ...

Yemen Yemen, officially the Republic of Yemen, is a country in West Asia. Located in South Arabia, southern Arabia, it borders Saudi Arabia to Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, the north, Oman to Oman–Yemen border, the northeast, the south-eastern part ...

, and

Oman Oman, officially the Sultanate of Oman, is a country located on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula in West Asia and the Middle East. It shares land borders with Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. Oman’s coastline ...

, nesting mainly on rocky cliff faces. The species is becoming increasingly

commensal Commensalism is a long-term biological interaction (symbiosis) in which members of one species gain benefits while those of the other species neither benefit nor are harmed. This is in contrast with mutualism, in which both organisms benefit f ...

with humans, feeding in towns and villages; this has enabled a recent northward spread in its distribution.Snow, D. W. & Perrins, C. M. (1998). ''The Birds of the Western Palearctic'' Concise Edition. OUP .

Description

Tristram's starling is 25 cm long (including a 9 cm tail), with a wingspan of 44–45 cm, and a weight of 100–140 g. The males have glossy iridescent black plumage with orange patches on the outer wing, which are particularly noticeable in flight. The bill and legs are black. Females and young birds are similar but duller and with a greyish head, lacking the plumage gloss.Mullarney, K., Svensson, L., Zetterström, D., & Grant, P. J. (1999). ''Collins Bird Guide''. Harper Collins, London. .

Physiology

Although starlings are a tropical family by origin, Tristram's starling is well adapted to living in a desert environment: it loses relatively little water to evaporation and produces less heat than expected for its

base metabolic rate Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the rate of food energy, energy expenditure per unit time by endotherm, endothermic animals at rest.. In other words it is the energy required by body organs to perform normal It is reported in energy units per unit t ...

. Its dark plumage may help it survive in the desert winter, when temperatures are low but the Sun's radiation is strong.Dmi'el, R., & Tel-Tzur, D. (1985). Heat balance of two starling species (Sturnus vulgaris andOnychognathus tristrami) from temperate and desert habitats. ''Journal of Comparative Physiology'' B, 155(3), 395-402.

Ecology and behavior

Diet

Tristram's starlings are

omnivorous An omnivore () is an animal that regularly consumes significant quantities of both plant and animal matter. Obtaining energy and nutrients from plant and animal matter, omnivores digest carbohydrates, protein, fat, and fiber, and metabolize ...

, feeding on fruit and invertebrates (mainly insects such as beetles, flies, butterflies, and bees; but also small snailsCraig, A. J. F. and C. J. Feare (2020). Tristram's Starling (Onychognathus tristramii), version 1.0. In Birds of the World (J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, J. Sargatal, D. A. Christie, and E. de Juana, Editors). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.trista1.01). They have also been observed grooming

Nubian ibex The Nubian ibex (''Capra nubiana'') is a desert-dwelling goat species (Genus ''Capra (genus), Capra'') found in mountainous areas of North Africa, northern and Horn of Africa, northeast Africa, and the Middle East. It was historically considered ...

and domestic

livestock Livestock are the Domestication, domesticated animals that are raised in an Agriculture, agricultural setting to provide labour and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat, Egg as food, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The t ...

for

parasite Parasitism is a Symbiosis, close relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives (at least some of the time) on or inside another organism, the Host (biology), host, causing it some harm, and is Adaptation, adapted str ...

s. Although they do not migrate for the most part,Shirihai, H., Dovrat, E., Christie, D. A., & Harris, A. (1996). ''The birds of Israel'' (Vol. 876). London: Academic Press. they fly relatively long distances compared to other resident birds, which likely makes them important seed dispersers for fleshy-fruited desert plants.Spiegel, O. and Nathan, R. (2007), Incorporating dispersal distance into the disperser effectiveness framework: frugivorous birds provide complementary dispersal to plants in a patchy environment. Ecology Letters, 10: 718-728. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2007.01062.x In addition, they often forage for scraps in human settlements.

Breeding

Tristram's starlings breed during the spring and early summer. They nest in existing cavities in rocky cliffs and also in urban buildings. Pairs are monogamous. The male courts the female by bringing her insects and twigs. They lay 2-4 eggs, which are blue with brown spots. Females incubate alone,Hofshi, H., Gersani, M., & Katzir, G. (1987). ''URBAN NESTING OF TRISTRAM'S GRACKLES ONYCHOGNATHUS TRLSTRAMLL IN ISRAEL''. Ostrich, 58(4), 156-159. but both parents feed the chicks. The young leave the nest about a month after hatching. Some pairs raise a second brood in later in the season, using the same nest.

Social behaviour

Tristram's starling is a gregarious and noisy bird, with a call that resembles a wolf whistle. Outside the breeding season the starlings live in groups of between ten and a few hundred individuals. However, pairs remain together throughout the year, even when they join a larger group.

Gallery

File:Onychognathus tristramii -Israel -female-8.jpg, Female in Israel File:Pigeons on a stone at Masada - Zoom.JPG, A group in Masada, Israel File:Capra nubiana, Israel 9.jpg, Tristram's starling on a

in Sde Boker, Israel File:Tristramstar an Gertränkekarton.jpg, Oman File:A Tristram's starling, near Masada.jpg, A Tristram's starling, near Masada

References

{{Taxonbar, from=Q916098 Tristram's starling Birds of the Middle East Tristram's starling Tristram's starling