Tiziano Vecellio - Bildnis Der Erzherzogin Katharina Von Österreich

Tiziano Vecellio (; 27 August 1576), Latinized as Titianus, hence known in English as Titian ( ), was an Italian Renaissance painter, the most important artist of Renaissance Venetian painting. He was born in Pieve di Cadore, near Belluno.

Titian was one of the most versatile of Italian painters, equally adept with portraits, landscape backgrounds, and mythological and religious subjects. His painting methods, particularly in the application and use of colour, exerted a profound influence not only on painters of the late Italian Renaissance, but on future generations of Western artists.

His career was successful from the start, and he became sought after by patrons, initially from Venice and its possessions, then joined by the north Italian princes, and finally the Habsburgs and the papacy. Along with Giorgione, he is considered a founder of the Venetian school of Italian Renaissance painting. In 1590, the painter and art theorist Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo described Titian as "the sun amidst small stars not only among the Italians but all the painters of the world".

During his long life, Titian's artistic manner changed drastically, but he retained a lifelong interest in colour. Although his mature works may not contain the vivid, luminous tints of his early pieces, they are remarkable and original in their loose brushwork and subtlety of tone.

Biography

Early years

The exact time or date of Titian's birth is uncertain. When he was an old man he claimed in a letter to Philip II of Spain to have been born in 1474, but this seems most unlikely.Cecil Gould, The Sixteenth Century Italian Schools, National Gallery Catalogues, p. 265, London, 1975, Other writers contemporary to his old age give figures that would equate to birth dates between 1473 and after 1482. Most modern scholars believe a date between 1488 and 1490 is more likely, though his age at death being 99 had been accepted into the 20th century.

He was the son of Gregorio Vecellio and his wife Lucia, of whom little is known. The Vecellio family was well-established in the area, which was ruled by Venice. Titian's grandfather Conte Vecellio was a prominent notary who held a number of offices in the local administration. Three of Conte's sons were notaries, not including Gregorio, who was active as a soldier and closely assciated with the Venetian Arsenal, but worked mainly as a timber merchant and also managed mines in the mountainous Cadore region for their owners.

Ludovico Dolce, who knew Titian, says that Titian had four masters, the first being Sebastiano Zuccato, the second Gentile Bellini, then his brother Giovanni Bellini, and last, Giorgione. No documentation for these relationships has been found. The Zucatti family of artists are best known as mosaicists, but there is no evidence that the painter Sebastiano Zuccato himself was active as a mosaicist, although Joannides says he probably was.

According to Giorgio Vasari, who also knew Titian and included a not always accurrate biography of the artist in his ''Lives'', Titian first studied under Giovanni Bellini. Dolce writes that the boy was sent to Venice at age nine, along with his brother Francesco, to live with an uncle and apprentice to Sebastiano Zuccato. Leaving Zuccato, Titian briefly transferred to the studio of Gentile Bellini, one of the largest and most productive workshops in Venice. Following Gentile's death in 1507 he entered into an apprenticeship with Gentile's younger brother Giovanni, acknowledged by contemporaries as the preeminent Venetian painter of the day. As there is no documentation of Titian's work before 1510, there is no way to know which version, Dolce's or Vasari's, is closer to the truth. Living in the city, Titian found a group of young men about his own age, among them Giovanni Palma da Serinalta, Lorenzo Lotto, Sebastiano Luciani, and Giorgio da Castelfranco, nicknamed Giorgione. Francesco Vecellio, Titian's brother, while more workmanlike in his approach to painting and lacking Titian's talent, was able to achieve some notice in his home town of Cadore and the Bellunese area around it.

Giorgio Martinioni mentions in his edition (1663) of Sansovino's guide to Venice a fresco of ''Hercules'' painted by Titian above the entrance to the Morosini house, a painting that would have been one of his earliest works, although a year later Marco Boschini rejected this attribution. Others attributed to his early years were the Bellini-esque so-called '' Gypsy Madonna'' in Vienna, and ''The Visitation'' from the monastery of Sant'Andrea, now in the Accademia, Venice. According to Joannides, features of the ''Visitations execution such as the painter's deployment of light to stress the two pregnant women and the focus on colouristic values are qualities to be found in the earliest of Titian's works, and its attribution to him is supported as well by its dramatic expression of movement and the geometry of the arrangement of visual elements on the canvas.

''A Man with a Quilted Sleeve'' is an early portrait, painted around 1509 and described by Giorgio Vasari in 1568. Scholars long believed it depicted Ludovico Ariosto, but now think it is of Gerolamo Barbarigo. Rembrandt had seen ''A Man with a Quilted Sleeve'' at auction, and drew a thumbnail sketch of it. Later he was able to examine the painting more closely in the home of the Sicilian merchant Ruffio, who had bought it. The work inspired the Dutch artist to sketch his own self-portrait in 1639 and then to make a similar etching, followed by a self-portrait in oils in 1640.

In 1507–1508, Giorgione was commissioned by the state to create exterior frescoes on the recently rebuilt Fondaco dei Tedeschi, a warehouse for the German merchants in the city, which stood next to the Rialto bridge facing the Grand Canal. Titian and Morto da Feltre worked alongside him. Giorgione painted the facade facing the canal in 1508, while Titian painted the facade above the street, probably in 1509. Many contemporary critics found Titian's work more impressive. Only some badly damaged fragments of the paintings remain. Some of their work is known, in part, through the engravings of Fontana.

The relationship between the two young artists evidently contained a significant element of rivalry. Distinguishing between their works during this period remains a subject of scholarly controversy. A substantial number of attributions have moved from Giorgione to Titian in the 20th century, with little traffic the other way. One of the earliest known Titian works, '' Christ Carrying the Cross'' in the Scuola Grande di San Rocco, was long regarded as being by Giorgione.

After Giorgione's early death in 1510, Titian continued to paint Giorgionesque subjects for some time, though his style developed its own features, including the bold and expressive brushwork so characteristic of his later years.

Titian's talent in fresco is shown in those he painted in 1511 at Padua in the Carmelite church and in the Scuola del Santo, some of which have been preserved, among them the ''Meeting at the Golden Gate'', and three scenes (''Miracoli di sant'Antonio'') from the life of St. Anthony of Padua, ''Murder of a Young Woman by Her Husband'', which depicts The Miracle of the Jealous Husband, ''A Child Testifying to Its Mother's Innocence'', and ''The Saint Healing the Young Man with a Broken Limb''. '' The Resurrected Christ'' (Uffizi) also dates to 1511-1512.

On 31 May 1513 Titian petitioned the Council of Ten for a commission to paint a canvas depicting a great battle scene for the Doge's palace (completed only in 1538). At the same time he requested the next available ''sansaria'' (or ''senseria''), a broker's patent at the Fondaco dei Tedeschi which assured the recipient an annual stipend of 120 ducats, and whose symbolic value was usually greater than the income itself. The Council, who already knew his reputation, were receptive to his offer. The request was granted, but it was reversed in March 1514. His application was recorded again in November 1514, with the understanding that he had an expectation of Giovanni Bellini's position unless another became vacant in the meantime. Titian did not obtain the ''sansaria'' upon Bellini's death in late 1516, however. Apparently the Senate wanted to keep his services in reserve until he proved himself, and the appointment was withheld until 1523.

The ''sansaria'' was important for Titian with its implicit recognition as quasi-official painter to the republic and represented an opportunity to gain major commissions from the state. Once he obtained it, he transformed it over time into a sinecure which required little work, although it was intended as payment for the performance of certain tasks in the Doge's Palace.

Growth

During this period (1516–1530), which may be called the period of his mastery and maturity, the artist moved on from his early Giorgionesque style, undertook larger, more complex subjects, and for the first time attempted a monumental style. Giorgione died in 1510 and Giovanni Bellini in 1516, while Sebastiano del Piombo had gone to Rome, leaving Titian unrivaled in the Venetian School. For sixty years he was the undisputed master of Venetian painting.

In 1516, he completed his masterpiece, the ''Assumption of the Virgin'', for the high altar of the Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari. It is still ''in situ'', and is his largest single panel. This piece of colourism, executed on a grand scale rarely before seen in Italy, created a sensation. In the pictorial structure of the ''Assumption'', the three domains of the composition are occupied by the apostles on earth, the Madonna rising in the sky, and God the Father in heaven looking over all, united to form a coherent whole, unlike the less dynamic and more fragmented renditions of earlier painters. According to Bruce Cole, Titian studied traditional renderings of the ''Assumption'' like every artist of the Renaissance. He would have been familiar with Andrea Mantegna's large fresco of the subject executed in Padua's church of the Eremitani in the 1450s, having worked in 1510 on frescoes for the Scuola del Santo in Padua. Nearby Venice on the lagoon isle of Murano there was another example of the subject, painted by Giovanni Bellini and his workshop, that Titian would have known. Although he surely held these previous works in high esteem, his approach to composing his own ''Assunta'' was individualistic and innovative.

The commission for the ''Assumption'', undertaken in 1515, was soon followed by commissions for major altarpieces at Brescia and Ancona, as well as for the altar of the Pesaro family chapel in the Frari. By 1520 he must have been working on several of these works at once, including the second version of the San Nicolò altarpiece now displayed in the Vatican Pinacoteca.

Merchants in the Dalmatian city of Ragusa (Dubrovnik), across the Adriatic Sea from Italy, commissioned a polyptych ''The Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary'' by Titian and his workshop, now on the high altar of the cathedral in Ragusa, as well as a recently restored painting by Titian depicting St Blaise, Mary Magdalene, the Archangel Raphael and Tobias in the Dubrovnik Dominican convent.

''St Sebastian'', painted on a separate panel of a polyptych, was commissioned by a papal legate to Venice, Altobello Averoldi, for the altarpiece of the Church of Santi Nazzaro e Celso in Brescia. Bette Talvacchia alludes to Luba Freedman's discussion of the figure of Sebastian in terms of its reception by a contemporary "learned audience", acquainted with the literature of art, who could be said to have had some claim to connoiseurship. Signed and dated 1522, according to David Rosand it was ready for viewing in 1520. Jacopo Tebaldi, an agent for Alfonso I d'Este, was present for the studio preview, and schemed to purchase it for the duke. Saint Sebastian, bound and wounded, had special status as an intercessor during periodic outbreaks of the plague, and was a very popular subject of sacred painting. Such a figure, intended for a religious context, nonetheless provided an occasion for portrayal of the male nude and could be appreciated as an independent work of art.

To this period belongs a more extraordinary work, '' The Assassination of Saint Peter Martyr'' (1530), formerly in the Dominican Church of San Zanipolo, and destroyed by a fire in 1867. Only copies and engravings of this proto-Baroque picture remain. It combined extreme violence and a landscape, mostly consisting of a great tree, that pressed into the scene and seems to accentuate the drama in a way that presages the Baroque.

The artist simultaneously continued a series of small Madonnas, which he placed amid beautiful landscapes, in the manner of genre pictures or poetic pastorals. The ''Virgin with the Rabbit'', in the Louvre, is the finished type of these pictures. Another work of the same period, also in the Louvre, is the ''Entombment''. This was also the period of the three large and famous mythological scenes for the ''camerino'' of Alfonso d'Este in Ferrara, ''The Bacchanal of the Andrians'' and the ''Worship of Venus'' in the and the ''Bacchus and Ariadne'' (1520–23) in London, "perhaps the most brilliant productions of the neo-pagan culture or 'Alexandrianism' of the Renaissance, many times imitated but never surpassed even by Rubens himself."
Finally this was the period when Titian composed the half-length figures and busts of young women, such as ''Flora'' in the Uffizi and '' Woman with a Mirror'' (or ''Woman at Her Toilet'') in the Louvre. There is some evidence that prostitutes were used as models by Titian and other painters of the time, including some of Venice's famous courtesans. In Syson's view, if this practice was generally known in 16th-century Venetian society, it might have influenced the "reactions and interpretations" by some of the paintings' owners and those who viewed them.

Maturity

During the next period (1530–1550), Titian developed the style introduced by his dramatic Death of St. Peter Martyr.
''Bacchus and Ariadne'' (1520–1523), depicts Ariadne, a Cretan princess abandoned by Theseus, whose ship is shown in the distance and who has just left her at the Greek island of Naxos, at the moment when Bacchus arrives. Bacchus, falling immediately in love with Ariadne, leaps from his chariot, drawn by two cheetahs, to be near her. In the mythical love story, Ariadne is frightened by the wine god's raucous retinue and runs away. Bacchus wins her over and they are married, following which he creates from her jewelled wedding crown the constellation of the Corona Borealis, whose stars Titian places in the upper left of the sky to symbolize their eternal love. The painting belongs to a series commissioned from Bellini, Titian, and Dosso Dossi, for the Camerino d'Alabastro (Alabaster Room) in the Ducal Palace, Ferrara, by Alfonso I d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, who in 1510 tried to commission Michelangelo and Raphael for the series.

In early 1508, Titian's father Gregorio had fought with the victorious forces of Bartolomeo d'Alviano at Valle against the armies of Maximilian I. In 1513, Titian applied to the Council of Ten of the Republic of Venice, offering to paint a battle scene in the ''Sala del Consiglio Maggiore'' (Hall of the Great Council) of the Ducal Palace. The battle painting, which came to be known as ''Battle of Cadore'', was commissioned in 1513 and documents in the palace archives record that Titian went to work on it immediately, but eventually his enthusiasm for the project diminished and by June 1537, it remained unfinished. A document dated 23 June 1537 records that he had been granted a broker's patent in 1513, contingent on his painting the canvas of the battle scene, and since 5 December 1516 he had been paid the revenues of that appointment. Because he had not fulfilled its terms the council demanded he return all the funds he had received for those years in which he had done no work.

When Titian was threatened with withdrawal of the commission and the obligation to refund the payments he had received, a serious competitor, Pordenone, was available to replace him, one who had proved his abilities in the specialized field of painting battle scenes filled with horses and horsemen. Since at least 1520 Pordenone had mounted a powerful challenge to the primacy of Titian in Venice. According to Harold Edwin Wethey, the oil-on-canvas painting finally completed by Titian in 1538 covered the deteriorated fresco, ''Battlle of Spoleto'', executed by Guariento di Arpo in the 14th century. Contemporary or near contemporary sources pertaining to the canvas are contradictory and do not clarify exactly when it was painted or which particular battle it represented. Sansovino says Titian omitted the inscription placed above the former painting by Guariento of the battle of Spoleto.

This major battle scene by Titian was lost—with many other major works by Venetian artists—in the 1577 fire that destroyed all the old pictures in the great chambers of the Doge's Palace (''Palazzo Ducale''). It depicted in life-size the moment when the Venetian general d'Alviano attacked the enemy, with horses and men crashing down into a river during a heavy rainstorm (according to Vasari). It was Titian's most important attempt at a tumultuous and heroic scene of movement to rival Raphael's '' The Battle of Constantine at the Milvian Bridge'', Michelangelo's equally ill-fated ''Battle of Cascina'', and Leonardo da Vinci's ''The Battle of Anghiari'' (these last two unfinished). Gillet mentions a "poor, incomplete copy at the Uffizi, and a mediocre engraving by Fontana." This period of Titian's work is still represented by the ''Presentation of the Blessed Virgin'' (Venice, 1539), one of his most popular canvasses, and by the ''Ecce Homo'' (Vienna, 1543). Despite its loss, the ''Battle of Cadore'' had a great influence on Bolognese art and Rubens. His ''Speech of the Marquis del Vasto'' (Madrid, 1541) was also partly destroyed by fire.

Esthy Kravitz-Lurie writes that modern scholarly consensus is that the traditional identification of Alfonso d'Avalos, Marquis of Vasto, as the male protagonist in Titian's painting, ''Allegory of Marriage'', now in the Louvre, presents problems of interpretation. It is generally believed to have been finished in 1530–1535. Alfonso d'Avalos wrote a letter in November 1531 to Pietro Aretino, in which he stated that he wished to be portrayed by Titian with his wife and son. Although the letter does not prove that the artist undertook such a commission, the painting subsequently was regarded as a portrait of the military figure. The earliest identification of the painting's protagonist as the warrior d'Avalos is in an inventory of artworks belonging to the English King Charles I, completed in 1639 by Abraham van der Doort, Keeper of Charles I's art collections. As noted by Paul Johannides, van der Doort's reference can be interpreted as 'owned by' rather than as 'representing', suggesting that Alfonso might have been the commissioner of the painting rather than its male subject.

Walter Friedlaender calls Titian's three paintings on the ceiling of Santa Maria della Salute "manifestations of genius unprecedented even in Titian's own work", as expressed in the impassioned power of movement in the composition and in his "daring" use of ''contrapposti'' and foreshortening. These represent ''Cain and Abel'', the ''Sacrifice of Isaac'', and ''David and Goliath''. Friedlaender says these paintings, finished in 1544, were greatly influential in the development of Baroque painting, and admired because of his success in projecting powerful movement in the spaces overhead without using a complicated system of perspective. Further, this new mode introduced in the Salute paintings was an important influence on Veronese's decorations in San Sebastiano and on Rubens in his later decorations for the Church of San Carlo Borromeo in Antwerp.
At this time also, during his visit to Rome, the artist began a series of reclining Venuses: ''The Venus of Urbino'' of the Uffizi, ''Venus and Love'' at the same museum, '' Venus—and the Organ-Player'', Madrid, which shows the influence of contact with ancient sculpture. Giorgione had already dealt with the subject in his Dresden picture, finished by Titian.

Lisa Jardine says a competitive acquisitiveness was necessary for the increased production of extravagantly expensive works of art during the Renaissance. A painter who wanted to establish his reputation was obliged to stimulate a commercial demand for his art, rather than to build it on some imagined basis of intellectual value. Titian's canvases of voluptuous naked women reclining in seductive poses were regarded as learned "visual explorations of allegories drawn from classical Latin literature" by art historians of the 19th-century. More recent scholarship has revealed contemporary correspondence indicating these works of art were created to satisfy a strong demand for erotically charged paintings of nudes in blatantly sexual poses, and meant to be hung in the bedrooms of the nobilty. When in 1542 Cardinal Alessandro Farnese saw the painting now known as ''The Venus of Urbino'' at the duke's summer palace, he made haste to commission from Titian a similar nude for himself, the first in a series representing Danaë and the golden shower.

The Farnese ''Danaë'' (1544–1546) is a masterful demonstration of Titian's painterly use of colour, imbuing the painting, according to Janson, with "unrivaled richness and complexity of colour". Janson contrasts Titian's embrace of the sensual and emotional appeal of ''colore'' with Michelangelo's more intellectual emphasis on ''disegno'', or design, as seen in the detailed drawings of figures made in preparation for his painted compositions. ''Danaë'' was one of several mythological paintings, or "poesie" ("poems"), as the painter called them. This painting was done for Cardinal Farnese, but a later variant was produced for Philip II (while he was still crown prince), for whom Titian painted many of his most important mythological paintings. Although Michelangelo adjudged this piece deficient from his point of view regarding the importance of preliminary drawings for a composition, Titian and his studio produced several versions for other patrons.

From the beginning of his career, Titian was a virtuoso portrait-painter, demonstrated in works such as ''La Bella'' (Eleanora de Gonzaga, Duchess of Urbino, at the Palazzo Pitti). He painted the likenesses of princes, or Doges, cardinals or monks, and artists or writers. "...no other painter was so successful in extracting from each physiognomy so many traits at once characteristic and beautiful". Concerning portraiture and portrait-painters, the art historian Kenneth Clark writes: "The portrait is a thorn in the side of the student of aesthetics. Having established to his satisfaction that art does not consist in imitation, he must face the fact that three of the greatest artists who ever lived, Titian, Rembrandt, and Velázquez, gave the best of their talents to painting portraits."

These qualities show in the '' Portrait of Pope Paul III'' of Naples, or the sketch of the same ''Pope Paul III and his Grandsons'', the '' Portrait of Pietro Aretino'' of the Pitti Palace, the ''Portrait of Isabella of Portugal'' (Madrid), and the series of Emperor Charles V of the same museum, the ''Charles V with a Greyhound'' (1533), and especially the '' Equestrian Portrait of Charles V'' (1548), an equestrian picture in a symphony of purples. This state portrait of Charles V (1548) at the Battle of Mühlberg established a new genre, that of the grand equestrian portrait. The composition is steeped both in the Roman tradition of equestrian sculpture and in the medieval representations of an ideal Christian knight. In 1533, after painting a portrait of the Emperor Charles V in Bologna, he was made a Count Palatine and Knight of the Golden Spur, According to Crowe and Cavalcaselle, his children were also made nobles of the Empire.

This appointment allowed him to gain royal patronage and work on prestigious commissions. As a matter of professional and worldly success, his position from about this time is regarded as equal only to that of Raphael, Michelangelo and, at a later date, Rubens. As recounted by Sophie Bostock, Titian was appointed "First Painter to the Most Serene Republic of Venice" upon the death of Giovanni Bellini, and his fame throughout Europe increased accordingly. Titian, like Gentile Bellini, was one of the first artists to be granted noble status by a monarch—only the work and person of Michelangelo were held in such high esteem. In a self-portrait from the 1550s, he depicts himself clothed in the rich attire of a patrician, including the heavy gold chain bestowed on him by Charles V in 1533. In 1540 he received a pension from d'Avalos, marquis del Vasto, and an annuity of 200 crowns (which was afterwards doubled) from Charles V from the treasury of Milan. Another source of some profit, for Titian was adept in managing his affairs and in lending his money at interest, was a contract obtained in 1542 for supplying grain to Cadore when local stores were low. Titian had a villa on the Manza Hill in front of the church (Chiesa dei Santi Pietro e Paolo) of Castello Roganzuolo, where he painted a triptych. The so-called Titian's mill, frequently discernible in his studies, is at Collontola, near Belluno.

Titian visited Rome in 1545–1546 and was honoured with the freedom of the city. He was offered the office of ''piombotore'' or keeper of the papal seal three times, the first when he became the Farneses' chosen portraitist, and presumably the last time when Sebastiano del Piombo's death left the position unoccupied, but he politely refused the lucrative sinecure. He was summoned to Augsburg from Venice in 1547 to paint portraits of Charles V and of other dignitaries. Titian took advantage of the opportunity to present himself as more than a portrait painter and one whose versatility as an artist could be of value to the emperor.

Final years

After his first trip to the imperial court at Augsburg, Titian's production gained new dimensions as a result of his presence there and the relationship, built on mutual trust, that he established with Charles V. Commissions from the emperor and then from his son Philip II monopolized the artist's output from the 1550s. The model of portraiture he developed for the Habsburgs became a standard for princes, nobles, and ecclesiastics in the hierarchy of power, and thus necessitated a reordering of his workshop to accommodate increased demand from a wider clientele.

Consequently he began to produce variants and replicas of his works in a systematic almost assembly-line fashion, an unprecedented practice. In his studio Titian used "specialised collaborators" who made copies of his works, which he then retouched for corrections and to impart his ''esprit'' to paintings that might be sold as originals, or to purchasers who were not necessarily averse to settling for copies. In Titian's time retouching was practiced widely by artists, especially to perfect the work done by apprentices in their workshops.

Titian relentlessly revised his works, but the changes he made did not follow a linear progression. He tested the positions of different motifs such as figures and landscape elements numerous times, but new arrangements were not always adopted and those previously rejected might be taken up again. When laying-in the background of a composition, the master and his workshop team typically laid in more than one iteration, which might be obliterated by others, as often happened, or revised and reworked later, even 40 or 50 years later. Titian treated his underdrawings as mere suggestions, and frequently made changes to the original drawing which might not be followed in the painting's execution.

For Philip II, he painted a series of large mythological paintings known as the "poesie", mostly from Ovid, which scholars regard as among his greatest works. Thanks to the prudishness of Philip's successors, these were later mostly given as gifts, and only two remain in the Prado. Titian was producing religious works for Philip at the same time, some of which—the ones inside Ribeira Palace—are known to have been destroyed during the 1755 Lisbon Earthquake. The "poesie" series contained the following works:
* ''Danaë'', sent to Philip in 1553, now in the Wellington Collection, with earlier and later versions
* '' Venus and Adonis'', of which the earliest surviving version, delivered in 1554, is in the Prado, but several versions exist
* '' Perseus and Andromeda'' (Wallace Collection, now damaged)
* '' Diana and Actaeon'', owned jointly by the National Gallery in London and the National Gallery of Scotland in Edinburgh
* ''Diana and Callisto'', were dispatched in 1559, owned jointly by the National Gallery and the National Gallery of Scotland
* '' The Rape of Europa'' (Boston, Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum), delivered in 1562
* '' The Death of Actaeon'', now in the National Gallery in London, begun in 1559 but worked on for many years and never completed or delivered

In 1623, when Prince Charles of England was to be married to Infanta Maria Anna of Spain

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