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Takrur, Tekrur or Tekrour ( 500 – c. 1456) was a state based in the
Senegal River The Senegal River ( or "Senegal" - compound of the  Serer term "Seen" or "Sene" or "Sen" (from  Roog Seen, Supreme Deity in Serer religion) and "O Gal" (meaning "body of water")); , , , ) is a river in West Africa; much of its length mark ...
in modern day
Senegal Senegal, officially the Republic of Senegal, is the westernmost country in West Africa, situated on the Atlantic Ocean coastline. It borders Mauritania to Mauritania–Senegal border, the north, Mali to Mali–Senegal border, the east, Guinea t ...
which was at its height in the 11th and 12th centuries, roughly parallel to the
Ghana Empire The Ghana Empire (), also known as simply Ghana, Ghanata, or Wagadu, was an ancient western-Sahelian empire based in the modern-day southeast of Mauritania and western Mali. It is uncertain among historians when Ghana's ruling dynasty began. T ...
. It lasted in some form into the 18th century.


History


Origin

There are a number of conflicting theories about the deep past of the Senegal river valley, where the Kingdom of Takrur would take root. The formation of the state may have taken place as an influx of
Fulani The Fula, Fulani, or Fulɓe people are an ethnic group in Sahara, Sahel and West Africa, widely dispersed across the region. Inhabiting many countries, they live mainly in West Africa and northern parts of Central Africa, South Sudan, Darfur, ...
from the east settled in the Senegal valley.
John Donnelly Fage John Donnelly Fage (3 June 1921–6 August 2002) was a British historian who was among the first academics to specialise in African history, especially of the pre-colonial period, in the United Kingdom and West Africa. He published a num ...
suggests that Takrur was formed through the interaction of
Berbers Berbers, or the Berber peoples, also known as Amazigh or Imazighen, are a diverse grouping of distinct ethnic groups indigenous to North Africa who predate the arrival of Arab migrations to the Maghreb, Arabs in the Maghreb. Their main connec ...
from the
Sahara The Sahara (, ) is a desert spanning across North Africa. With an area of , it is the largest hot desert in the world and the list of deserts by area, third-largest desert overall, smaller only than the deserts of Antarctica and the northern Ar ...
and "Negro agricultural peoples" who were "essentially Serer". The outsiders may, however, have been Soninke rather than Berber, and the native population may have already spoken Fula. Regardless, the region has been an ethnic melting pot from the earliest traceable periods up to the present, although Fula have come to dominate in more recent centuries. The founding dynasty was called Dya'ogo. Traditional historians disagree on their origin and ethnic background (assuming a relationship can be drawn at all with ethnic labels as understood today). They were blacksmith-kings, and supposedly introduced iron-working and ore extraction to the region.


Manna Dynasty

A Soninke clan under Mamadu Sumaare, originally from
Wagadu The Ghana Empire (), also known as simply Ghana, Ghanata, or Wagadu, was an ancient western-Sahelian empire based in the modern-day southeast of Mauritania and western Mali. It is uncertain among historians when Ghana's ruling dynasty began. T ...
, conquered Takrur in the 9th or 10th century, establishing the Manna dynasty and gradually melding into the local culture. They may have been Nyakhates from Diarra, Soumares from
Guidimakha Guidimaka () is the southernmost region of Mauritania. Its capital is Sélibaby. The region borders the Mauritanian region of Assaba to the north-east, Mali to the south-east, Senegal to the south-west and the Mauritanian Gorgol Region to the ...
, or Jaabis. Takrur was first mentioned in Arab sources in the 10th century. In 1035 king
War Jabi War Jabi ('' Serer'': Waar Jaabi or War Jaabi or ''War-Dyabe''; ) was the first Muslim king of Takrur in the 1030s, the first to proclaim Islam as a state religion in the Sudan. Background War Jabi was a member of the Manna dynasty that had rule ...
introduced
Sharia law Sharia, Sharī'ah, Shari'a, or Shariah () is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition based on scriptures of Islam, particularly the Qur'an and hadith. In Islamic terminology ''sharīʿah'' refers to immutable, inta ...
, becoming the first ruler to officially adopt Islamic orthodoxy in the
Sahel The Sahel region (; ), or Sahelian acacia savanna, is a Biogeography, biogeographical region in Africa. It is the Ecotone, transition zone between the more humid Sudanian savannas to its south and the drier Sahara to the north. The Sahel has a ...
.Colvin, Lucie Gallistel, ''Historical dictionary of Senegal'', Scare Crow Press Inc. (1981), p. 18, During his reign he launched a
Holy War A religious war or a war of religion, sometimes also known as a holy war (), is a war and conflict which is primarily caused or justified by differences in religion and beliefs. In the modern period, there are frequent debates over the extent t ...
against the King of Silla, subjugating them and converting the people to Islam. He died in 1041 and was succeeded by his son,
Lebi ibn War Jabi Lebi ibn War Jabi, or Labbi, was the second Muslim ruler of Takrur, and son of War Jabi. He is known for his alliance with the Almoravid Dynasty. Background Lebi ibn War Jabi was the son of War Jabi and member of the Manna Dynasty of Takrur. ...
, who would go on to start an alliance with the newly established
Almoravid Dynasty The Almoravid dynasty () was a Berber Muslim dynasty centered in the territory of present-day Morocco. It established an empire that stretched over the western Maghreb and Al-Andalus, starting in the 1050s and lasting until its fall to the Almo ...
to counter the power of the
Ghana Empire The Ghana Empire (), also known as simply Ghana, Ghanata, or Wagadu, was an ancient western-Sahelian empire based in the modern-day southeast of Mauritania and western Mali. It is uncertain among historians when Ghana's ruling dynasty began. T ...
. The first action between this alliance came in 1054 with a combined attack on the berber city of
Awdaghust Aoudaghost also transliterated as Awadaghust, Awdughast, Awdaghusht, Awdaghost, and Awdhaghurst () is a former Berber town in Hodh El Gharbi, Mauritania. It was an important oasis town at the southern end of a trans-Saharan caravan route that i ...
, for recognizing the authority of the ruler of
Ghana Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated along the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and shares borders with Côte d’Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, and Togo to t ...
. Having fought alongside
Yahya ibn Umar al-Lamtuni Abu Zakariyya Yahya ibn Umar ibn Talagagin ibn Turgut ibn Wartasin, commonly suffixed al-Lamtuni al-Sanhaji, (d. near Azuggi, 1056; Arabic : يحيى إبن عمر) was a chieftain of the Lamtuna, a tribe in the Sanhaja confederation. Yahya ibn ...
at the
battle of Tabfarilla The Battle of Tabfarilla was a military conflict between the Lamtuna and the Godala. Both of them Muslim Berber Sanhaja tribes of the Sahara Desert and one time allies, the Lamtuna formed the core of the Almoravids after the Godala broke away. Th ...
, Lebi also provided military help, and financial aid to the
Almoravids The Almoravid dynasty () was a Berber Muslim dynasty centered in the territory of present-day Morocco. It established an empire that stretched over the western Maghreb and Al-Andalus, starting in the 1050s and lasting until its fall to the Almo ...
, helping conquer up to Morocco and
Al-Andalus Al-Andalus () was the Muslim-ruled area of the Iberian Peninsula. The name refers to the different Muslim states that controlled these territories at various times between 711 and 1492. At its greatest geographical extent, it occupied most o ...
. 4,000 cavalrymen from Takrur were critical to the Almoravid victory at the 1086
Battle of Sagrajas The Battle of Sagrajas (23 October 1086), also called Zalaca or Zallaqah (), was a conflict fought in 1086 between the Almoravid dynasty, Almoravid army, led by their king, Yusuf ibn Tashfin, and the forces of King Alfonso VI of León and Cas ...
in
Al-Andalus Al-Andalus () was the Muslim-ruled area of the Iberian Peninsula. The name refers to the different Muslim states that controlled these territories at various times between 711 and 1492. At its greatest geographical extent, it occupied most o ...
which was crucial to halting the
Reconquista The ''Reconquista'' (Spanish language, Spanish and Portuguese language, Portuguese for ) or the fall of al-Andalus was a series of military and cultural campaigns that European Christian Reconquista#Northern Christian realms, kingdoms waged ag ...
. This alliance was maintained for most of the next 200 years. During this period Takrur held a dominant position in regional trade, controlling a series of trading posts and cities linking the salt mines of Awlil on the coast north of the mouth of the Senegal to the interior. In the 12th century,
Silla Silla (; Old Korean: wikt:徐羅伐#Old Korean, 徐羅伐, Yale romanization of Korean, Yale: Syerapel, Revised Romanization of Korean, RR: ''Seorabeol''; International Phonetic Alphabet, IPA: ) was a Korean kingdom that existed between ...
, allied with Takrur, went to war against
Wagadu The Ghana Empire (), also known as simply Ghana, Ghanata, or Wagadu, was an ancient western-Sahelian empire based in the modern-day southeast of Mauritania and western Mali. It is uncertain among historians when Ghana's ruling dynasty began. T ...
. Its decline meant that Takrur was able to exert more control over the trade routes moving gold from
Bambouk Bambouk (sometimes Bambuk or Bambuhu) is a traditional name for the territory in eastern Senegal and western Mali, encompassing the Bambouk Mountains on its eastern edge, the valley of the Faleme River and the hilly country to the east of the r ...
to desert-side markets.


Serer Exodus

When Islam and Sharia was introduced to the Kingdom by
War Jabi War Jabi ('' Serer'': Waar Jaabi or War Jaabi or ''War-Dyabe''; ) was the first Muslim king of Takrur in the 1030s, the first to proclaim Islam as a state religion in the Sudan. Background War Jabi was a member of the Manna dynasty that had rule ...
, it led to the persecution of the local Serers.Chavane, Bruno A., "Villages de l’ancien Tekrour", Vol. 2, Hommes et sociétés. Archéologies africaines, KARTHALA Editions (1985), p. 38, The lamanic class, whose role also included the safeguarding of their traditional Serer spirituality, are believed to have been at the forefront of resisting Islamization, partly to preserve their religion, but also their power and wealth as landowners. It was common for early Arab writers such as Al Bakri to refer to "non-believers" of Islam in their works as ''lamlam, lemlem,'' or ''damdam'' which may be a corruption of the Serer title '' lamaan.'' The persecution of the Serers in the 11th century led to their first generally accepted exodus from Tekrur, moving southwards. During the 13th century, a civil war broke out. The descendants of the Serers who chose to remain decided to migrate southwest, first to the
Ferlo The Ferlo Desert, also known as the Ferio Desert, is a desert in northern-central Senegal. It is inhabited by the Serer and the Fulani. Geography and landscape The Ferlo Desert occupies an area of some 70,000 km2, over one-third of the cou ...
, and then to Siin and
Saloum The Kingdom of Saloum ( Serer: ''Saluum'' or ''Saalum'') was a Serer kingdom in present-day Senegal and parts of Gambia. The precolonial capital was the city of Kahone. Re-established in 2017, Saloum is now a non-sovereign traditional monarch ...
rather than be converted to Islam. Ibrahima Thiaw advanced the claim that this was the process by which a distinct 'Serer' identity first emerged, separate from the rest of the Takruri population. Professor
Issa Laye Thiaw Issa Laye Thiaw (1943 – 10 September 2017)''Obituary of Professor Issa Laye Thiaw'' : "Our special tribute to Professor Issa Laye Thiaw", by The Seereer Resource Centre, Seereer Radio and Seereer Heritage Press. Published: 11 September 201 was ...
, Professor
Cheikh Anta Diop Cheikh Anta Diop (29 December 1923 – 7 February 1986) was a Senegalese historian, anthropologist, physicist, and politician who studied the human race's origins and pre-colonial African culture. Diop's work is considered foundational to the the ...
, the 18th century French archaeologist Paul Pierret, and Professor
Molefi Kete Asante Molefi Kete Asante ( ; born Arthur Lee Smith Jr.; August 14, 1942) is an American philosopher who is a leading figure in the fields of African-American studies, African studies, and communication studies. He is currently a professor in the Dep ...
''et al''... amongst other historians posits that the name 'Serer' is sacred and pre-Islamic, leading Asante et al. to conclude that, "they are an ancient people whose history reaches deep into the past..." and that would be consistent with their "strong connection to their ancient religious past". Professor Trimingham notes that, in the region, Takrur became the first to adopt Islam, but in so doing, completely lost its Serer identity.


Vassalage and Decline

The 13th century was a period of political crisis in Takrur. The last Manna king, Cengaan Sumaare, is remembered as a bloodthirsty tyrant who was overthrown by his own people. The western parts of the kingdom became independent. Around 1286, the
Mali Empire The Mali Empire (Manding languages, Manding: ''Mandé''Ki-Zerbo, Joseph: ''UNESCO General History of Africa, Vol. IV, Abridged Edition: Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century'', p. 57. University of California Press, 1997. or ''Manden ...
conquered Takrur and put it under a military dictatorship ruled by ''farba'' (governors), remembered locally as the Tonjon dynasty. Mali's power in the region diminished in the 14th century, however, and the Fula Lam Termess and Lam Taaga dynasties were able to take power. The region may also have been controlled by the
Kingdom of Diarra Diarra, also referred to as Kingui, Diafunu, or Kaniaga, was a Soninke state in what is now northwestern Mali, centered around the town of Diarra. Founded in the 11th century, it was occasionally independent but frequently under the domination o ...
. Takrur was conquered by the Jolof emperor
Tyukuli N'Diklam Tyukuli N'Diklam, also spelled Cukuli Njiklaan, was the fourth ruler, or ''Burba'', of the Jolof Empire. Stewart places his rule between c.1420 and c.1440. Senegalese scholar Oumar Kane, however, proposes that he was born in 1433 and identifies him ...
in the 15th century, who split the region between multiple ''farba''. By 1506, however, the '' Burbas authority was weakening, and the ''farba'' fell to fighting amongst themselves.
Koli Tengella Koli Tenguella (also referred to as Koli Tenguella Bâ/Bah, Koli Tengella Jaaje Baa and Koli Pullo) (r. 1512–1537) was a Fulani warrior and leader who was pivotal in establishing the Empire of Great Fulo. Family Koli was the son of Tenguella, ...
, a Fula warlord native to Takrur but coming from
Futa Jallon Fouta Djallon (, , ; ) is a highland region in the center of Guinea, roughly corresponding with Middle Guinea, in West Africa. Etymology The Fulani people call the region Fuuta-Jaloo ( ) in the Pular language. 'Futa' is a Fula word for any re ...
, conquered the area in 1521 and set up the
Denanke The Empire of Great Fulo (; ), also known as the Denanke Kingdom or Denianke Kingdom, was a Pulaar kingdom of Senegal, which dominated the Futa Toro region from the early 16th century to 1776. Tenguella, a Fula chief in Futa Toro, led an emigra ...
dynasty. This would last until 1776 when the Fouta Revolution, led by Muslim
clerics Clergy are formal leaders within established religions. Their roles and functions vary in different religious traditions, but usually involve presiding over specific rituals and teaching their religion's doctrines and practices. Some of the ter ...
, took over the kingdom and the house of Denanke was brought down.


Timeline

Dates are approximate and often disputed by different sources or authors.


Economy

Takrur was a trading centre, where
gold Gold is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol Au (from Latin ) and atomic number 79. In its pure form, it is a brightness, bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal. Chemically, gold is a transition metal ...
from the
Bambuk Bambouk (sometimes Bambuk or Bambuhu) is a traditional name for the territory in eastern Senegal and western Mali, encompassing the Bambouk Mountains on its eastern edge, the valley of the Faleme River and the hilly country to the east of the r ...
region,
salt In common usage, salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl). When used in food, especially in granulated form, it is more formally called table salt. In the form of a natural crystalline mineral, salt is also known as r ...
from the Awlil, and
Sahel The Sahel region (; ), or Sahelian acacia savanna, is a Biogeography, biogeographical region in Africa. It is the Ecotone, transition zone between the more humid Sudanian savannas to its south and the drier Sahara to the north. The Sahel has a ...
grain were exchanged for wool, copper, beads, and jewelry. The kingdom's cotton cloth was among its most renowned exports.


Territory

At the height of its power, Takrur controlled the north bank of the Senegal as far as the
Tagant plateau The Tagant Plateau is located in eastern Mauritania, forming a stony part of the Sahara Desert. The Tagant Region, a national administrative division, is named after the plateau. Geography Some towns are located at the foot of the Tagant Plateau ...
and Aleg. The Gorgol river valley was the heartland of the kingdom, and was the site of the Dya'ogo capital Tumbere Jiinge. They also controlled, or at least had significant influence over, the area downstream that would become
Waalo Waalo () was a kingdom on the lower Senegal River in West Africa, in what is now Senegal and Mauritania. It included parts of the valley proper and areas north and south, extending to the Atlantic Ocean. To the north were Moorish emirates; to the ...
.


Takrur as a toponym

Takruri was a term, like
Bilad el-Sudan Sudan is the geographical region to the south of the Sahara, stretching from Western Africa to Central and Eastern Africa. The name derives from the Arabic ' () and ' (), both meaning "the land of the Blacks", referring to West Africa and nort ...
, that was used to refer to all people of West African ancestry, and is still in use as such in the
Middle East The Middle East (term originally coined in English language) is a geopolitical region encompassing the Arabian Peninsula, the Levant, Turkey, Egypt, Iran, and Iraq. The term came into widespread usage by the United Kingdom and western Eur ...
, with some corruption, as in ''Takruni'', pl. ''Takarna'' تكروني in
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in West Asia. Located in the centre of the Middle East, it covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula and has a land area of about , making it the List of Asian countries ...
, and in Ethiopia and Eritrea, in the form
Tukrir In Ethiopia and Eritrea, the terms Tukrīr (Amharic) and Tukrir ( Tigrinya) are used to designate persons of West or Central African origin. The terms derives from the city and kingdom of Takrūr that thrived on the lower Senegal River in the eleven ...
. The district of ''Bulaq Al-Dakrur'' بولاق الدكرور in
Cairo Cairo ( ; , ) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Egypt and the Cairo Governorate, being home to more than 10 million people. It is also part of the List of urban agglomerations in Africa, largest urban agglomeration in Africa, L ...
is named after an
ascetic Asceticism is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from worldly pleasures through self-discipline, self-imposed poverty, and simple living, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Ascetics may withdraw from the world for their pra ...
from West Africa. In the
Middle East The Middle East (term originally coined in English language) is a geopolitical region encompassing the Arabian Peninsula, the Levant, Turkey, Egypt, Iran, and Iraq. The term came into widespread usage by the United Kingdom and western Eur ...
Toucouleurs are still referred to as ''
Tukrir In Ethiopia and Eritrea, the terms Tukrīr (Amharic) and Tukrir ( Tigrinya) are used to designate persons of West or Central African origin. The terms derives from the city and kingdom of Takrūr that thrived on the lower Senegal River in the eleven ...
'' to this day. Takrur was the term used by the region's inhabitants up until the 15th century. During the 16th and 17th centuries, however, it was gradually replaced by
Futa Toro Futa Toro (Wolof language, Wolof and , , ; ), often simply the Futa, is a semidesert region around the middle run of the Senegal River. This region, along the border of Senegal and Mauritania, is historically significant as the center of several F ...
.


See also

*
Serer people The Serer people (''Serer language, Serer proper'': Seereer or Sereer) are a West African ethnoreligious groupGastellu, Jean-Marc, ''Petit traité de matrilinarité. L'accumulation dans deux sociétés rurales d'Afrique de l'Ouest'', Cahiers ORST ...
*
Fula people The Fula, Fulani, or Fulɓe people are an ethnic group in Sahara, Sahel and West Africa, widely dispersed across the region. Inhabiting many countries, they live mainly in West Africa and northern parts of Central Africa, South Sudan, Darfur, ...
*
Toucouleur people __NOTOC__ The Toucouleur people or Tukulor people (, ), also called Haalpulaar (Ajami: ), are a West African ethnic group native to the Futa Toro region of Senegal. There are smaller communities in Mali and Mauritania. The Toucouleur were Islamiz ...
*
Serer ancient history The prehistoric and ancient history of the Serer people of modern-day Senegambia has been extensively studied and documented over the years. Much of it comes from archaeological discoveries and Serer tradition rooted in the Serer religion. ...
*
States headed by Serer Lamanes This is a list of states headed by the Serer Lamanes. The Lamanes (or Lamans) have a historical, economic and religious significance in Serer countries. The following pre-colonial kingdoms and new states (post-independence) were for a long t ...
*
Timeline of Serer history This is a timeline of the history and development of Serer religion and the Serer people of Senegal, The Gambia and Mauritania. This timeline merely gives an overview of their history, consisting of calibrated archaeological discoveries in ...


Notes


Sources

* * * * * * *al-Naqar, Umar (1969). "Takrur the History of a Name. Cambridge University Press. pp. 367 *Levtsiyon, Neḥemyah; Levtsiyon, Neḥemyah (1973). Ancient Ghana and Mali. Studies in African history (1. publ ed.). London: Methuen. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-416-75830-6. *McDougall, EA (1985). The View from Awdaghust: War, Trade and Social Change in the Southwestern Sahara, from the Eighth to the Fifteenth Century. Cambridge University Press. p. 8. *Hrbek, Ivan; Unesco, eds. (1992). Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century. General history of Africa (Vol. 3 ed.). London : Berkeley, Calif., U.S.A. : Paris: J. Currey ; University of California Press ; UNESCO. p. 356. ISBN 978-0-85255-093-9. * Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "Ethnic Diversity and Integration in The Gambia: The Land, The People and The Culture," (2010), pp. 11, 224, 231, *Mwakikagile, Godfrey, ''The Gambia and Its People: Ethnic Identities and Cultural Integration in Africa.'' (2010), p. 138, *Chavane, Bruno A., "Villages de l’ancien Tekrour", Vol. 2, Hommes et sociétés. Archéologies africaines, KARTHALA Editions (1985), p. 38, * Klein, Martin A., "Islam and Imperialism in Senegal
Sine-Saloum Sine-Saloum is a region in Senegal located north of the Gambia and south of the Petite Côte. It encompasses an area of 24,000 square kilometers, about 12% of Senegal, with a population in the 1990s of 1,060,000. The western portion contains the ...
, 1847-1914", Edinburgh University Press (1968), pp 7 & 63, * Gravrand, Henry, "La Civilisation sereer, Cossan – les origines", vol. 1, Nouvelles Editions africaines (1983), pp 115–18, *Gravrand, Henry, "La civilisation Sereer, Pangool", Nouvelles Editions africaines du Sénégal (1990), p. 13, * Thiaw, Issa Laye, ''La Religiosité des Sereer, avant et pendant leur Islamisation.'' Éthiopiques, No: 54, Revue Semestrielle de Culture Négro-Africaine. Nouvelle Série, Volume 7, 2e Semestre (1991). *Pierret, Paul, "Dictionnaire d'archéologie égyptienne", Imprimerie nationale 1875, p. 198-199 *Pierret, Paul, "Dictionnaire d'archéologie égyptienne", Imprimerie nationale 1875, p. 198-199 n Diop, Cheikh Anta, ''Precolonial Black Africa.'', (translated by Harold Salemson), Chicago Review Press (1988), p. 65 * Asante, Molefi Kete; Mazama, Ama; ''Encyclopedia of African Religion'',
SAGE Publications Sage Publishing, formerly SAGE Publications, is an American independent academic publishing company, founded in 1965 in New York City by Sara Miller McCune and now based in the Newbury Park neighborhood of Thousand Oaks, California. Sage ...
(2008)

(retrieved 2 March 2025) *Trimingham, John Spencer, ''A history of Islam in West Africa'', pp. 174, 176 & 234, Oxford University Press, USA (1970)


Further reading

*J. F. Ade Ajayi,
Michael Crowder Michael Crowder (9 June 1934 – 14 August 1988) was a British historian and author notable for his books on the history of Africa and particularly on the history of West Africa. Early life and education Michael was born in London and educat ...
(eds.). ''History of West Africa''. Columbia University (1972) * J. Hunwick
"Takrur"
''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', Leiden 2000, X, 142–3. *Mary Antin, Nehemia Levtzion. ''Medieval West Africa Before 1400: Ghana, Takrur, Gao (Songhay) and Mali''. Translated by Nehemia Levtzion. J. F. Hopkins: Contributor. Markus Wiener Publishing, New Jersey (1998). *J. D. Fage (ed.). ''The Cambridge History of Africa'', vol. II, Cambridge University Press (1978), 675–7. * * H. T. Norris. "The Wind of Change in the Western Sahara". ''The Geographical Journal'', Vol. 130, No. 1 (Mar., 1964), pp. 1–14 *D.W. Phillipson. ''African Archaeology'', Cambridge University Press (Revised Edition 2005). *Leyti, Oumar Ndiaye. ''Le Djoloff et ses Bourba.'' Nouvelles Editions Africaines, 1981. *Ogot, Bethwell A. ''General history of Africa: Africa from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century.'' University of California Press, 1999, , p 146. *Oliver, Roland. ''The Cambridge history of Africa: From c. 1600 to c. 1790.'' Cambridge University Press, 1982. , p484


External links





{{Authority control 13th-century disestablishments in Africa Kingdoms of Senegal Countries in medieval Africa Political history of Mauritania Medieval Islamic world States and territories established in the 9th century Serer history Serer precolonial kingdoms Successor states to the Ghana Empire Persecution of Serers