Science-fiction

Science fiction (sometimes shortened to Sci-Fi or SF) is a genre of speculative fiction which typically deals with imaginative and futuristic concepts such as advanced science and technology, space exploration, time travel, parallel universes, extraterrestrial life, sentient artificial intelligence, cybernetics, certain forms of immortality (like mind uploading), and the singularity. Science fiction predicted several existing inventions, such as the atomic bomb, robots, and borazon, whose names entirely match their fictional predecessors. In addition, science fiction might serve as an outlet to facilitate future scientific and technological innovations.

Science fiction can trace its roots to ancient mythology. It is also related to fantasy, horror, and superhero fiction and contains many subgenres. Its exact definition has long been disputed among authors, critics, scholars, and readers.

Science fiction, in literature, film, television, and other media, has become popular and influential over much of the world. It has been called the "literature of ideas", and often explores the potential consequences of scientific, social, and technological innovations. It is also often said to inspire a "sense of wonder". Besides providing entertainment, it can also criticize present-day society and explore alternatives.

Definitions

American science fiction author and editor Lester del Rey wrote, "Even the devoted aficionado or fan—has a hard time trying to explain what science fiction is," and the lack of a "full satisfactory definition" is because "there are no easily delineated limits to science fiction." According to Isaac Asimov, "Science fiction can be defined as that branch of literature which deals with the reaction of human beings to changes in science and technology."Asimov, "How Easy to See the Future!", ''Natural History'', 1975 Robert A. Heinlein wrote that "A handy short definition of almost all science fiction might read: realistic speculation about possible future events, based solidly on adequate knowledge of the real world, past and present, and on a thorough understanding of the nature and significance of the scientific method."

Science fiction tries to blend fiction and reality seamlessly so that the viewer can be immersed in the imaginative world. This includes characters, settings, and tools and perhaps most critically, the scientific plausibility and accuracy of technology and technological concepts. Sometimes, science fiction forecasts real life innovations and discoveries. In the 2020 series '' Away'' astronauts use a real-life Mars rover called InSight to listen intently for a landing on Mars. Two years later in 2022 scientists used InSight to listen for the landing of a real spacecraft.
In the Jurassic Park franchise, dinosaurs are created from ancient DNA and 18 years later, real life scientists found dinosaur DNA in ancient fossils.

Part of the reason that it is so difficult to pin down an agreed definition of science fiction is because there is a tendency among science fiction enthusiasts to act as their own arbiter in deciding what exactly constitutes science fiction. Damon Knight summed up the difficulty, saying "science fiction is what we point to when we say it." Ultimately, it may be more useful to talk around science fiction as the intersection of other, more concrete, genres and subgenres.

Alternative terms

Forrest J Ackerman has been credited with first using the term "sci-fi" (analogous to the then-trendy " hi-fi") in about 1954; the first known use in print was a description of ''Donovan's Brain'' by movie critic Jesse Zunser in January 1954. As science fiction entered popular culture, writers and fans active in the field came to associate the term with low-budget, low-tech "B-movies," and with low-quality pulp science fiction. By the 1970s, critics within the field, such as Damon Knight and Terry Carr, were using "sci fi" to distinguish hack-work from serious science fiction. Peter Nicholls writes that "SF" (or "sf") is "the preferred abbreviation within the community of sf writers and readers." Robert Heinlein found even "science fiction" insufficient for certain types of works in this genre, and suggested the term speculative fiction to be used instead for those that are more "serious" or "thoughtful."

History

Some scholars assert that science fiction had its beginnings in ancient times, when the line between myth and fact was blurred. Written in the 2nd century CE by the satirist Lucian, ''A True Story'' contains many themes and tropes characteristic of modern science fiction, including travel to other worlds, extraterrestrial lifeforms, interplanetary warfare, and artificial life. Some consider it the first science-fiction novel. Some of the stories from ''The Arabian Nights'', along with the 10th-century ''The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter'' and Ibn al-Nafis's 13th-century ''Theologus Autodidactus,'' also contain elements of science fiction.

Written during the Scientific Revolution and the Age of Enlightenment, Johannes Kepler's '' Somnium'' (1634), Francis Bacon's ''New Atlantis'' (1627), Athanasius Kircher's ''Itinerarium extaticum'' (1656), Cyrano de Bergerac's ''Comical History of the States and Empires of the Moon'' (1657) and '' The States and Empires of the Sun'' (1662), Margaret Cavendish's "The Blazing World" (1666), Jonathan Swift's '' Gulliver's Travels'' (1726), Ludvig Holberg's '' Nicolai Klimii Iter Subterraneum'' (1741) and Voltaire's '' Micromégas'' (1752) are regarded as some of the first true science-fantasy works. Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan considered '' Somnium'' the first science-fiction story; it depicts a journey to the Moon and how the Earth's motion is seen from there.

Following the 17th-century development of the novel as a literary form, Mary Shelley's ''Frankenstein'' (1818) and ''The Last Man'' (1826) helped define the form of the science-fiction novel. Brian Aldiss has argued that ''Frankenstein'' was the first work of science fiction. Edgar Allan Poe wrote several stories considered to be science fiction, including "The Unparalleled Adventure of One Hans Pfaall" (1835) which featured a trip to the Moon. Jules Verne was noted for his attention to detail and scientific accuracy, especially in ''Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea'' (1870). In 1887, the novel '' El anacronópete'' by Spanish author Enrique Gaspar y Rimbau introduced the first time machine. A rather unknown early French/Belgian science fiction writer was J.-H. Rosny aîné (1856–1940).

Many critics consider H. G. Wells one of science fiction's most important authors, or even "the Shakespeare of science fiction." His notable science-fiction works include ''The Time Machine'' (1895), ''The Island of Doctor Moreau'' (1896), ''The Invisible Man'' (1897), and ''The War of the Worlds'' (1898). His science fiction imagined alien invasion, biological engineering, invisibility, and time travel. In his non-fiction futurologist works he predicted the advent of airplanes, military tanks, nuclear weapons, satellite television, space travel, and something resembling the World Wide Web.

Edgar Rice Burroughs' ''A Princess of Mars'', published in 1912, was the first of his three-decade-long planetary romance series of Barsoom novels which were set on Mars and featured John Carter as the hero. In 1926, Hugo Gernsback published the first American science-fiction magazine, ''Amazing Stories''. In its first issue he wrote:

In 1928, E. E. "Doc" Smith's first published work, ''The Skylark of Space,'' written in collaboration with Lee Hawkins Garby, appeared in ''Amazing Stories''. It is often called the first great space opera. The same year, Philip Francis Nowlan's original Buck Rogers story, '' Armageddon 2419'', also appeared in ''Amazing Stories''. This was followed by a Buck Rogers comic strip, the first serious science-fiction comic.

In 1937, John W. Campbell became editor of ''Astounding Science Fiction'', an event which is sometimes considered the beginning of the Golden Age of Science Fiction, which is characterized by stories celebrating scientific achievement and progress. In 1942, Isaac Asimov started his Foundation series, which chronicles the rise and fall of galactic empires and introduced psychohistory. The series was later awarded a one-time Hugo Award for "Best All-Time Series." The "Golden Age" is often said to have ended in 1946, but sometimes the late 1940s and the 1950s are included.

Theodore Sturgeon's ''More Than Human'' (1953) explored possible future human evolution. In 1957, '' Andromeda: A Space-Age Tale'' by the Russian writer and paleontologist Ivan Yefremov presented a view of a future interstellar communist civilization and is considered one of the most important Soviet science fiction novels. In 1959, Robert A. Heinlein's '' Starship Troopers'' marked a departure from his earlier juvenile stories and novels. It is one of the first and most influential examples of military science fiction, and introduced the concept of powered armor exoskeletons. The German space opera series ''Perry Rhodan'', written by various authors, started in 1961 with an account of the first Moon landing and has since expanded in space to multiple universes, and in time by billions of years. It has become the most popular science fiction book series of all time.

In the 1960s and 1970s, New Wave science fiction was known for its embrace of a high degree of experimentation, both in form and in content, and a highbrow and self-consciously "literary" or "artistic" sensibility. In 1961, ''Solaris'' by Stanisław Lem was published in Poland. The novel dealt with the theme of human limitations as its characters attempted to study a seemingly intelligent ocean on a newly discovered planet. 1965's ''Dune'' by Frank Herbert featured a much more complex and detailed imagined future society than had previous science fiction.

In 1967 Anne McCaffrey began her ''Dragonriders of Pern'' science fantasy series. Two of the novellas included in the first novel, ''Dragonflight'', made McCaffrey the first woman to win a Hugo or Nebula Award.''Publishers Weekly'' review of Robin Roberts, ''Anne McCaffrey: A Life with Dragons'' (2007)
Quoted by Amazon.com
. Retrieved 2011-07-16. In 1968, Philip K. Dick's ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?,'' was published. It is the literary source of the ''Blade Runner'' movie franchise.Sammon, Paul M. (1996). Future Noir: the Making of Blade Runner. London: Orion Media. p. 49. . 1969's ''The Left Hand of Darkness'' by Ursula K. Le Guin was set on a planet in which the inhabitants have no fixed gender. It is one of the most influential examples of social science fiction, feminist science fiction, and anthropological science fiction.

In 1979, ''Science Fiction World'' began publication in the People's Republic of China. It dominates the Chinese science fiction magazine Market economy, market, at one time claiming a circulation of 300,000 copies per issue and an estimated 3–5 readers per copy (giving it a total estimated readership of at least 1 million), making it the world's most popular science fiction Periodical literature, periodical. In 1984, William Gibson, William Gibson's first novel, ''Neuromancer,'' helped popularize cyberpunk and the word "cyberspace," a term he originally Coined term, coined in his 1982 short story ''Burning Chrome''. In 1986, ''Shards of Honor'' by Lois McMaster Bujold began her Vorkosigan Saga.Loud Achievements: Lois McMaster Bujold's Science Fiction
in ''New York Review of Science Fiction'', October 1998 (Number 122) 1992's ''Snow Crash'' by Neal Stephenson Prediction, predicted immense social upheaval due to the information revolution.

In 2007, Liu Cixin's novel, ''The Three-Body Problem (novel), The Three-Body Problem'', was published in China. It was translated into English by Ken Liu and published by Tor Books in 2014, and won the 2015 Hugo Award for Best Novel, making Liu the first Asian writer to win the award.

Emerging themes in late 20th and early 21st century science fiction include List of environmental issues, environmental issues, the implications of the Internet and the expanding information universe, questions about biotechnology, nanotechnology, and post-scarcity societies. Recent trends and subgenres include steampunk, biopunk, and mundane science fiction.

Film

The first, or at least one of the first, recorded science fiction film is 1902's ''A Trip to the Moon'', directed by French people, French filmmaker Georges Méliès. It was profoundly influential on later Filmmaking, filmmakers, bringing a different kind of creativity and fantasy to the cinematic Media (communication), medium. In addition, Méliès's innovative editing and special effects techniques were widely imitated and became important elements of the medium.

1927's ''Metropolis (1927 film), Metropolis'', directed by Fritz Lang, is the first feature-length science fiction film. Though not well received in its time, it is now considered a great and influential film. In 1954, ''Godzilla (1954 film), Godzilla'', directed by Ishirō Honda, began the kaiju subgenre of science fiction film, which feature large creatures of any form, usually attacking a major city or engaging other monsters in battle.

1968's ''2001: A Space Odyssey (film), 2001: A Space Odyssey'', directed by Stanley Kubrick and based on the work of Arthur C. Clarke, rose above the mostly B-movie offerings up to that time both in scope and quality, and greatly influenced later science fiction films. That same year, ''Planet of the Apes (1968 film), Planet of the Apes'' (the original), directed by Franklin J. Schaffner and based on the 1963 French people, French novel ''Planet of the Apes (novel), La Planète des Singes'' by Pierre Boulle, was released to popular and critical acclaim, due in large part to its vivid depiction of a Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction, post-apocalyptic world in which intelligent apes dominate humans.

In 1977, George Lucas began the Star Wars, ''Star Wars'' film series with the film now identified as "''Star Wars (film), Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope.''" The series, often called a space opera, went on to become a worldwide popular culture Cultural impact of Star Wars, phenomenon, and the List of highest-grossing franchises and film series, second-highest-grossing film series of all time.

Since the 1980s, science fiction films, along with fantasy, horror film, horror, and superhero films, have dominated Cinema of the United States, Hollywood's big-budget productions. Science fiction films often "Cross-genre, cross-over" with other genres, including animation ''(WALL-E'' – 2008, ''Big Hero 6 (film), Big Hero 6'' – 2014), Gangster film, gangster (''Sky Racket (1937 film), Sky Racket'' – 1937), Western (genre), Western (''Serenity (2005 film), Serenity'' – 2005), comedy (''Spaceballs'' −1987, ''Galaxy Quest'' – 1999), War film, war (''Enemy Mine (film), Enemy Mine'' – 1985), Action film, action (''Edge of Tomorrow'' – 2014, ''The Matrix'' – 1999), Adventure film, adventure (''Jupiter Ascending'' – 2015, ''Interstellar (film), Interstellar'' – 2014), Sports film, sports (''Rollerball (1975 film), Rollerball'' – 1975), Mystery film, mystery (''Minority Report (film), Minority Report'' – 2002), Thriller film, thriller (''Ex Machina (film), Ex Machina'' – 2014), Horror film, horror (''Alien (film), Alien'' – 1979), film noir (''Blade Runner'' – 1982), Superhero film, superhero (''Marvel Cinematic Universe'' – 2008–), Drama (film and television), drama (''Melancholia (2011 film), Melancholia'' – 2011, ''Predestination (film), Predestination'' – 2014), and Romance film, romance (''Her (film), Her'' – 2013).Science Fiction Film: A Critical Introduction, Keith M. Johnston, Berg, 9 May 2013, pages 24–25. Some of the examples are given by this book.

Television

Science fiction and television have consistently been in a close relationship. Television or television-like Technology, technologies frequently appeared in science fiction long before television itself became widely available in the late 1940s and early 1950s.
Science Fiction TV, J. P. Telotte, Routledge, 26 March 2014, pages 112, 179

The first known science fiction television program was a thirty-five-minute Film adaptation, adapted excerpt of the play ''R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots), RUR'', written by the Czech (people), Czech playwright Karel Čapek, Broadcasting, broadcast Live television, live from the BBC's Alexandra Palace studios on 11 February 1938. The first popular science fiction program on Television in the United States, American television was the Children's television series, children's adventure Serial (radio and television), serial ''Captain Video and His Video Rangers'', which ran from June 1949 to April 1955.

''The Twilight Zone (1959 TV series), The Twilight Zone'' (the original series), produced and narrated by Rod Serling, who also wrote or co-wrote most of the episodes, ran from 1959 to 1964. It featured fantasy, Suspense (genre), suspense, and Horror film, horror as well as science fiction, with each episode being a complete story. Critics have ranked it as one of the best TV programs of any genre.

The Animation, animated series ''The Jetsons'', while intended as Comedy film, comedy and only running for one Season (television), season (1962–1963), Prediction, predicted many inventions now in common use: Flat panel display, flat-screen televisions, newspapers on a computer-like computer monitor, screen, computer viruses, Videotelephony, video chat, tanning beds, home treadmills, and more. In 1963, the time travel-themed ''Doctor Who'' premiered on BBC Television. The original series ran until 1989 and was revived in 2005. It has been extremely Popular culture, popular worldwide and has greatly influenced later TV science fiction. Other programs in the 1960s included ''The Outer Limits (1963 TV series), The Outer Limits'' (1963–1965), ''Lost in Space'' (1965–1968), and ''The Prisoner'' (1967).

''Star Trek: The Original Series, Star Trek'' (the original series), created by Gene Roddenberry, premiered in 1966 on NBC Television and ran for three seasons. It combined elements of space opera and Space Western. Only mildly successful at first, the series gained popularity through Broadcast syndication, syndication and extraordinary Cultural influence of Star Trek#Fandom, fan interest. It became a very popular and influential Star Trek franchise, franchise with many List of Star Trek films, films, List of Star Trek television series, television shows, List of Star Trek novels, novels, and other works and products.Roddenberry, Gene (11 March 1964)
''Star Trek'' Pitch
, first draft. Accessed at ''LeeThomson.myzen.co.uk''. ''Star Trek: The Next Generation'' (1987–1994) led to six additional live action ''Star Trek'' shows (''Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, Deep Space 9'' (1993–1999), ''Star Trek: Voyager, Voyager'' (1995–2001)'','' ''Star Trek: Enterprise, Enterprise'' (2001–2005), ''Star Trek: Discovery, Discovery'' (2017–present), ''Star Trek: Picard, Picard'' (2020–present), and Star Trek: Strange New Worlds, Strange ''New'' Worlds (2022–present)) with more in some form of development.

The miniseries V (1983 miniseries), ''V'' premiered in 1983 on NBC. It depicted an attempted takeover of Earth by reptilian aliens. ''Red Dwarf'', a comic science fiction series aired on BBC Two between 1988 and 1999, and on Dave (TV channel), Dave since 2009. ''The X-Files'', which featured UFOs and conspiracy theories, was created by Chris Carter (screenwriter), Chris Carter and broadcast by Fox Broadcasting Company from 1993 to 2002, and again from 2016 to 2018. ''Stargate (film), Stargate'', a film about ancient astronauts and interstellar teleportation, was released in 1994. ''Stargate SG-1'' premiered in 1997 and ran for 10 seasons (1997–2007). Spin-off series included ''Stargate Infinity'' (2002–2003), ''Stargate Atlantis'' (2004–2009), and ''Stargate Universe'' (2009–2011). Other 1990s series included ''Quantum Leap'' (1989–1993) and ''Babylon 5'' (1994–1999).

Syfy, SyFy, launched in 1992 as The Sci-Fi Channel, specializes in science fiction, supernatural horror, and fantasy.

The space-Western series Firefly (TV series), Firefly premiered in 2002 on Fox. It is set in the year 2517, after the arrival of humans in a new star system, and follows the adventures of the renegade crew of ''Serenity (fictional spacecraft), Serenity'', a "''Firefly''-class" spaceship.''Orphan Black'' began its 5-season run in 2013, about a woman who assumes the identity of one of her several genetically identical human clones. In late 2015 Syfy, SyFy premiered ''The Expanse (TV series), The Expanse'' to great critical acclaim, an American TV series about Humanity's colonization of the Solar System. Its later seasons would then be aired through Amazon Prime Video.

Social influence

Science fiction's rapid rise in popularity during the first half of the 20th century was closely tied to the popular respect paid to science at that time, as well as the rapid pace of technological innovation and new inventions.Astounding Wonder: Imagining Science and Science Fiction in Interwar America, John Cheng, University of Pennsylvania Press, 19 March 2012 pages 1–12. Science fiction has often Prediction, predicted scientific and technological progress (history), progress. Some works predict that new inventions and progress will tend to improve life and society, for instance the stories of Arthur C. Clarke and ''Star Trek''. Others, such as H. G. Wells, H.G. Wells's ''The Time Machine'' and Aldous Huxley, Aldous Huxley's ''Brave New World'', warn about possible negative consequences.The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Themes, Works, and Wonders, Volume 2, Gary Westfahl, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005

In 2001 the National Science Foundation conducted a Survey (human research), survey on "Public Attitude (psychology), Attitudes and Public Understanding: Science Fiction and Pseudoscience." It found that people who read or prefer science fiction may think about or relate to science differently than other people. They also tend to support the space program and the idea of contacting Extraterrestrial life, extraterrestrial civilizations. Carl Sagan wrote: "Many scientists deeply involved in the exploration of the Solar System, solar system (myself among them) were first turned in that direction by science fiction."

Brian Aldiss described science fiction as "Culture, cultural wallpaper." Evidence for this widespread influence can be found in trends for writers to employ science fiction as a tool for advocacy and generating cultural insights, as well as for educators when teaching across a range of academic disciplines not limited to the natural sciences. Scholar and science fiction critic George Edgar Slusser said that science fiction "is the one real international literary form we have today, and as such has branched out to visual media, interactive media and on to whatever new media the world will invent in the 21st century. Crossover issues between the sciences and the humanities are crucial for the century to come."

As protest literature

Science fiction has sometimes been used as a means of social protest. George Orwell, George Orwell's ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' (1949) is an important work of Dystopian fiction, dystopian science fiction. It is often invoked in protests against governments and leaders who are seen as totalitarianism, totalitarian. James Cameron, James Cameron's 2009 film ''Avatar (2009 film), Avatar'' was intended as a protest against imperialism, and specifically the European colonization of the Americas.

Robots, Artificial intelligence, artificial humans, human cloning, clones, intelligent computers, and their possible conflicts with human society have all been major themes of science fiction since, at least, the publication of Shelly's ''Frankenstein''. Some critics have seen this as reflecting authors’ concerns over the social alienation seen in modern society.Androids, Humanoids, and Other Science Fiction Monsters: Science and Soul in Science Fiction Films, Per Schelde, NYU Press, 1994, pages 1–10

Feminist science fiction poses questions about social issues such as how society constructs gender roles, the role reproduction plays in defining gender, and the inequitable political or personal power of one gender over others. Some works have illustrated these themes using utopias to explore a society in which gender differences or gender power imbalances do not exist, or dystopias to explore worlds in which Gender inequality, gender inequalities are intensified, thus asserting a need for feminist work to continue.

Climate fiction, or "cli-fi," deals with issues concerning Climate variability and change, climate change and global warming. University Course (education), courses on literature and environmental issues may include climate change fiction in their Syllabus, syllabi, and it is often discussed by other media (communication), media outside of science fiction fandom.

Libertarian science fiction focuses on the politics and social order implied by right libertarian philosophies with an emphasis on individualism and private property, and in some cases anti-statism.

Science fiction comedy often Satire, satirizes and Criticism, criticizes present-day society, and sometimes makes fun of the Convention (norm), conventions and clichés of more serious science fiction.The Animal Fable in Science Fiction and Fantasy, Bruce Shaw, McFarland, 2010, page 19

The potential for Science Fiction as a genre is not just limited to being a literary sandbox for exploring otherworldly narratives but can act as a vehicle to analyze and recognize a society's past, present, and potential future Social relation, social relationships with Other (philosophy), the Other. More specifically, Science Fiction offers a medium and representation of Alterity and differences in Identity (social science), social identity.

Sense of wonder

Science fiction is often said to inspire a "sense of wonder." Science fiction editor and critic David Hartwell wrote: "Science fiction’s appeal lies in combination of the rational, the believable, with the miraculous. It is an appeal to the sense of wonder." Carl Sagan said: "One of the great benefits of science fiction is that it can convey bits and pieces, hints, and phrases, of knowledge unknown or inaccessible to the reader . . . works you ponder over as the water is running out of the bathtub or as you walk through the woods in an early winter snowfall."

In 1967, Isaac Asimov commented on the changes then occurring in the science fiction community: "And because today’s real life so resembles day-before-yesterday’s fantasy, the old-time fans are restless. Deep within, whether they admit it or not, is a feeling of disappointment and even outrage that the outer world has invaded their private domain. They feel the loss of a 'sense of wonder' because what was once truly confined to 'wonder' has now become prosaic and mundane."

Science fiction studies

The study of science fiction, or science fiction studies, is the Criticism, critical assessment, Aesthetic interpretation, interpretation, and Conversation, discussion of science fiction literature, film, TV shows, new media, fandom, and fan fiction. Science fiction scholars study science fiction to better understand it and its relationship to science, technology, politics, other genres, and culture-at-large. Science fiction studies began around the turn of the 20th century, but it was not until later that science fiction studies solidified as a discipline with the publication of the academic journals ''Extrapolation (journal), Extrapolation'' (1959), ''Foundation: The International Review of Science Fiction'' (1972), and ''Science Fiction Studies'' (1973), and the establishment of the oldest organizations devoted to the Research, study of science fiction in 1970, the Science Fiction Research Association and the Science Fiction Foundation. The field has grown considerably since the 1970s with the establishment of more Academic journal, journals, organizations, and Academic conference, conferences, as well as science fiction Academic degree, degree-granting programs such as those offered by the University of Liverpool and the University of Kansas.

Classification

Science fiction has historically been sub-divided between hard science fiction and soft science fiction, with the division centering on the feasibility of the science central to the story. However, this distinction has come under increasing scrutiny in the 21st century. Some authors, such as Tade Thompson and Jeff VanderMeer, have pointed out that stories that focus explicitly on physics, astronomy, mathematics, and engineering tend to be considered "hard" science fiction, while stories that focus on botany, mycology, zoology, and the social sciences tend to be categorized as "soft," regardless of the relative Rigour, rigor of the science.

Max Gladstone defined "hard" science fiction as stories "where the Mathematics, math works," but pointed out that this ends up with stories that often seem "weirdly dated," as scientific paradigms shift over time. Michael Swanwick dismissed the traditional definition of "hard" SF altogether, instead saying that it was defined by characters striving to solve problems "in the right way–with determination, a touch of stoicism, and the consciousness that the universe is not on his or her side."

Ursula K. Le Guin also criticized the more traditional view on the difference between "hard" and "soft" SF: "The 'hard' science fiction writers dismiss everything except, well, physics, astronomy, and maybe chemistry. Biology, sociology, anthropology—that's not science to them, that's soft stuff. They're not that interested in what Human, human beings do, really. But I am. I draw on the social sciences a great deal."

As serious literature

Respected authors have written science fiction. Mary Shelley wrote a number of science fiction novels including ''Frankenstein, Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus'' (1818), and is considered a major writer of the Romantic Age. Aldous Huxley, Aldous Huxley's ''Brave New World'' (1932) is often listed as one of England's most important novels, both for its criticism of modern culture and its prediction of future trends including reproductive technology and Social engineering (political science), social engineering. Kurt Vonnegut was a highly respected American author whose works contain science fiction premises or themes. Other science fiction authors whose works are widely considered to be "serious" literature include Ray Bradbury (including, especially, ''Fahrenheit 451'' (1953) and ''The Martian Chronicles'' (1951)), Arthur C. Clarke (especially for ''Childhood's End''), and Paul Myron Anthony Linebarger, writing under the name Cordwainer Smith. In his book "The Western Canon", literary critic Harold Bloom includes ''Brave New World'', ''Solaris'', ''Cat's Cradle'' (1963) by Vonnegut, and ''The Left Hand of Darkness'' as culturally and aesthetically significant works of western literature.

David Barnett (writer), David Barnett has pointed out that there are books such as ''The Road'' (2006) by Cormac McCarthy, ''Cloud Atlas (novel), Cloud Atlas'' (2004) by David Mitchell (author), David Mitchell, ''The Gone-Away World'' (2008) by Nick Harkaway, ''The Stone Gods (novel), The Stone Gods'' (2007) by Jeanette Winterson, and ''Oryx and Crake'' (2003) by Margaret Atwood, which use recognizable science fiction Trope (literature), tropes, but whose authors and publishers do not Marketing, market them as science fiction. Doris Lessing, who was later awarded the Nobel Prize in literature, wrote a series of five SF novels, ''Canopus in Argos, Canopus in Argos: Archives'' (1979–1983), which depict the efforts of more advanced species and civilizations to influence those less advanced, including humans on Earth.

In her much reprinted 1976 essay "Science Fiction and Mrs Brown," Ursula K. Le Guin was asked: "Can a science fiction writer write a novel?" She answered: "I believe that all novels ... deal with Character (arts), character, and that it is to express character–not to preach doctrines [or] sing songs... that the form of the novel, so clumsy, verbose, and undramatic, so rich, elastic, and alive, has been evolved. ... The great novelists have brought us to see whatever they wish us to see through some character. Otherwise, they would not be novelists, but poets, historians, or pamphleteers." Orson Scott Card, best known for his 1985 science fiction novel ''Ender's Game'', has postulated that in science fiction the message and intellectual significance of the work are contained within the story itself and, therefore, does not need stylistic gimmicks or literary games.

Jonathan Lethem, in a 1998 essay in the ''Village Voice'' entitled "Close Encounters: The Squandered Promise of Science Fiction," suggested that the point in 1973 when Thomas Pynchon's ''Gravity's Rainbow'' was nominated for the Nebula Award and was passed over in favor of Clarke's ''Rendezvous with Rama'', stands as "a hidden tombstone marking the death of the hope that SF was about to merge with the mainstream." In the same year science fiction author and physicist Gregory Benford wrote: "SF is perhaps the defining genre of the twentieth century, although its conquering Army, armies are still camped outside the Roman Empire, Rome of the literary citadels."

Community

Authors

Science fiction is being written, and has been written, by Cultural diversity, diverse authors from around the world. According to 2013 statistics by the science fiction Publishing, publisher Tor Books, men outnumber women by 78% to 22% among submissions to the publisher. 2015 Hugo Awards controversy, A controversy about voting slates in the 2015 Hugo Awards highlighted tensions in the science fiction community between a trend of increasingly diverse works and authors being honored by awards, and reaction by groups of authors and fans who preferred what they considered more "traditional" science fiction.

Awards

Among the most respected and well-known awards for science fiction are the Hugo Award for literature, presented by the World Science Fiction Society at Worldcon, and voted on by fans; the Nebula Award for literature, presented by the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America, and voted on by the community of authors; the John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel, presented by a jury of writers; and the Theodore Sturgeon Award, Theodore Sturgeon Memorial Award for Short story, short fiction, presented by a jury. One notable award for science fiction films and TV programs is the Saturn Award, which is presented annually by Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy and Horror Films, The Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Horror Films.

There are other national awards, like Canada's Prix Aurora Awards, regional awards, like the Endeavour Award presented at OryCon, Orycon for works from the Pacific Northwest, U.S. Pacific Northwest, and special interest or subgenre awards such as the Chesley Award for art, presented by the Association of Science Fiction & Fantasy Artists, or the World Fantasy Award for fantasy. Magazines may organize reader polls, notably the Locus Award.

Conventions

Convention (meeting), Conventions (in fandom, often shortened as "cons," such as "comic-con") are held in City, cities around the world, catering to a local, regional, national, or international membership. Interest (emotion), General-interest conventions cover all aspects of science fiction, while others focus on a particular interest like media fandom, filking, and so on. Most science fiction conventions are organized by volunteering, volunteers in Non-profit organization, non-profit groups, though most media-oriented events are organized by Advertising, commercial promoters.

Fandom and fanzines

Science fiction fandom emerged from the Comic book letter column, letters column in ''Amazing Stories'' magazine. Soon fans began writing Letter (message), letters to each other, and then grouping their comments together in informal publications that became known as fanzines. Once they were in regular contact, fans wanted to meet each other, and they organized local clubs. In the 1930s, the first science fiction conventions gathered fans from a wider area.

The earliest organized online fandom was the SF Lovers Community, originally a mailing list in the late 1970s with a text File archiver, archive file that was updated regularly. In the 1980s, Usenet groups greatly expanded the circle of fans Online and offline, online. In the 1990s, the development of the World-Wide Web exploded the community of online fandom by orders of magnitude, with thousands and then millions of websites devoted to science fiction and related genres for all media.

The first Science-fiction fanzine, science fiction fanzine, ''The Comet (fanzine), The Comet'', was published in 1930 by the Science Correspondence Club in Chicago, Illinois. One of the best known fanzines today is ''Ansible (magazine), Ansible'', Editing, edited by David Langford, winner of numerous Hugo Award, Hugo awards. Other notable fanzines to win one or more Hugo awards include ''File 770'', ''Mimosa (magazine), Mimosa'', and ''Plokta''. Artists working for fanzines have frequently risen to prominence in the field, including Brad W. Foster, Teddy Harvia, and Joe Mayhew; the Hugo Award, Hugos include a category for Hugo Award for Best Fan Artist, Best Fan Artists.

Elements

Science fiction elements can include, among others:
*Temporal settings in the future, or in alternate history, alternative histories.
*Space travel in science fiction, Space travel, settings in outer space, on other worlds, in Hollow Earth, subterranean earth, or in Parallel universe (fiction)#Science fiction, parallel universes.
* Aspects of biology in fiction such as Extraterrestrial life, aliens, Mutant (fictional), mutants, and enhanced humans.
* Predicted or speculative technology such as Brain–computer interface, brain-computer interface, Biological engineering, bio-engineering, Superintelligence, superintelligent computers, robots, and Raygun, ray guns and other Weapons in science fiction, advanced weapons.
* Undiscovered scientific possibilities such as teleportation, time travel, and faster-than-light travel or Ansible, communication.
* New and different political and social systems and situations, including Utopian, dystopian, post-apocalyptic, or post-scarcity.
* Future history and Speculative evolution, evolution of humans on Earth or on other planets.Ashley, M. (April 1989). The Immortal Professor, Astro Adventures No.7, p.6.
* Paranormal abilities such as Mind control in popular culture, mind control, telepathy, and telekinesis.

International examples

Subgenres

Related genres

See also

* Outline of science fiction
* History of science fiction
* Timeline of science fiction
* Fantastic art
* Fictional worlds
* Futures studies
* List of comic science fiction
* List of religious ideas in science fiction
* List of science fiction and fantasy artists
* List of science fiction authors
* List of science fiction films
* List of science fiction novels
* List of science fiction television programs
* List of science fiction themes
* List of science fiction universes
* Planets in science fiction
* Political ideas in science fiction
* Retrofuturism
* Robots in science fiction
* Science fiction comics
* Science fiction libraries and museums
* Science in science fiction
* Time travel in fiction
* Transhumanism

Citations

General and cited sources

* Brian Aldiss, Aldiss, Brian. ''Billion Year Spree: The True History of Science Fiction'', 1973.
* Aldiss, Brian, and David Wingrove, Wingrove, David. ''Trillion Year Spree: The History of Science Fiction'', revised and updated edition, 1986.
* Kingsley Amis, Amis, Kingsley. ''New Maps of Hell: A Survey of Science Fiction'', 1958.
* Barron, Neil, ed. ''Anatomy of Wonder: A Critical Guide to Science Fiction'' (5th ed.). Westport, Conn.: Libraries Unlimited, 2004. .
* Damien Broderick, Broderick, Damien. ''Reading by Starlight: Postmodern Science Fiction.'' London: Routledge, 1995. Print.
* John Clute, Clute, John ''Science Fiction: The Illustrated Encyclopedia''. London: Dorling Kindersley, 1995. .
* John Clute, Clute, John and Peter Nicholls, eds., ''The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction''. St Albans, Herts, UK: Granada Publishing, 1979. .
* John Clute, Clute, John and Peter Nicholls, eds., ''The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction''. New York: St Martin's Press, 1995. .
* Thomas M. Disch, Disch, Thomas M. ''The Dreams Our Stuff Is Made Of''. New York: The Free Press, 1998. .
* Fredric Jameson, Jameson, Fredric. ''Archaeologies of the Future: This Desire Called Utopia and Other Science Fictions.'' London and New York: Verso, 2005.
* Andrew Milner, Milner, Andrew. ''Locating Science Fiction''. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2012.
* Masood Ashraf Raja, Raja, Masood Ashraf, Jason W. Ellis and Swaralipi Nandi. eds., ''The Postnational Fantasy: Essays on Postcolonialism, Cosmopolitics and Science Fiction''. McFarland 2011. .
* Reginald, Robert. ''Science Fiction and Fantasy Literature, 1975–1991''. Detroit, MI/Washington, D.C./London: Gale Research, 1992. .
* Roy, Pinaki. "Science Fiction: ''Some Reflections''". ''Shodh Sanchar Bulletin'', 10.39 (July–September 2020): 138–42.
*
* Darko Suvin, Suvin, Darko. ''Metamorphoses of Science Fiction: on the Poetics and History of a Literary Genre.'' New Haven : Yale University Press, 1979.
* Weldes, Jutta, ed. ''To Seek Out New Worlds: Exploring Links between Science Fiction and World Politics''. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. .
* Westfahl, Gary, ed. ''The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Themes, Works, and Wonders'' (three volumes). Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2005.
* Wolfe, Gary K. ''Critical Terms for Science Fiction and Fantasy: A Glossary and Guide to Scholarship''. New York: Greenwood Press, 1986. .

External links

Science Fiction Bookshelf
at Project Gutenberg

Science fiction fanzines (current and historical) online

SFWA "Suggested Reading" list

Science fiction at standardebooks.org

Science Fiction Research Association

A selection of articles written by Mike Ashley, Iain Sinclair and others, exploring 19th-century visions of the future.
from the British Library's Discovering Literature website.

Merril Collection of Science Fiction, Speculation and Fantasy
at Toronto Public Library

Science Fiction Studies' Chronological Bibliography of Science Fiction History, Theory, and Criticism

Best 50 sci-fi novels of all time
(Esquire (magazine), Esquire; 21 March 2022)

{{Authority control

Science fiction,
Speculative fiction, Speculative fiction