Sébastien Le Prestre, Marquis of Vauban (May 163330 March 1707), commonly referred to as Vauban (), was a

French Royal Army The French Royal Army () was the principal land force of the Kingdom of France. It served the Bourbon dynasty from the reign of Louis XIV in the mid-17th century to that of Charles X in the 19th, with an interlude from 1792 to 1814 and another du ...

officer and engineer who served under

Louis XIV LouisXIV (Louis-Dieudonné; 5 September 16381 September 1715), also known as Louis the Great () or the Sun King (), was King of France from 1643 until his death in 1715. His verified reign of 72 years and 110 days is the List of longest-reign ...

. He is generally considered the greatest military engineer of his time, and one of the most important in European military history. His principles for fortifications remained in use for nearly 100 years after his death, while aspects of his offensive tactics were employed into the twentieth century. Viewing civilian infrastructure as closely connected to military effectiveness, Vauban upgraded many of France's major ports, as well as new projects like the ''

Canal de la Bruche The ''Canal de la Bruche'' () is a canal in eastern France that originally connected Soultz-les-Bains, near Molsheim, to the city of Strasbourg. It was built in 1682 by the famous military engineer Vauban, principally to transport sandstone fr ...

'', which is still in use today. He founded the , whose curriculum was based on his own principles of design, strategy and training. His economic tract, , used statistics in support of his arguments, making it a precursor of modern economics. Later destroyed by

royal decree A decree is a legal proclamation, usually issued by a head of state, judge, royal figure, or other relevant authorities, according to certain procedures. These procedures are usually defined by the constitution, Legislative laws, or customary l ...

, it contained radical proposals for a more even distribution of the tax burden. His application of rational and scientific methods to problem-solving, whether engineering or social, anticipated an approach common in the

Age of Enlightenment The Age of Enlightenment (also the Age of Reason and the Enlightenment) was a Europe, European Intellect, intellectual and Philosophy, philosophical movement active from the late 17th to early 19th century. Chiefly valuing knowledge gained th ...

. Perhaps the most enduring aspect of Vauban's legacy was his view of France as a geographical entity. His advocacy of giving up territory for a more coherent and defensible border was unusual for the period; the boundaries of the French state he proposed in the north and east have changed very little since.

Personal details

Sébastien le Prestre de Vauban was born in May 1633, in Saint-Léger-de-Foucheret, renamed Saint-Léger-Vauban by

Napoleon III Napoleon III (Charles-Louis Napoléon Bonaparte; 20 April 18089 January 1873) was President of France from 1848 to 1852 and then Emperor of the French from 1852 until his deposition in 1870. He was the first president, second emperor, and last ...

in 1867, in what is now the

Bourgogne-Franche-Comté Bourgogne-Franche-Comté (; , sometimes abbreviated BFC; Arpitan: ''Borgogne-Franche-Comtât'') is a region in eastern France created by the 2014 territorial reform of French regions, from a merger of Burgundy and Franche-Comté. The new region ...

region. His parents, Urbain Le Prestre ( 1602–1652) and Edmée de Cormignolle (died c. 1651), were members of the minor nobility from Vauban in

Bazoches Bazoches () is a commune in the Nièvre department in central France. Population Personalities * The Marquis de Vauban, Marshal of France and famous military engineer, bought the Château de Bazoches in 1675.Château de BazocheOfficial web ...

. In 1570, his grandfather, Jacques Le Prestre, acquired

Château de Bazoches The Château de Bazoches is located in Bazoches, the modern region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté, historically part of the Burgundy region of France.

when he married Françoise de la Perrière, an illegitimate daughter of the Comte de Bazoches, who died

intestate Intestacy is the condition of the estate of a person who dies without a legally valid will, resulting in the distribution of their estate under statutory intestacy laws rather than by their expressed wishes. Alternatively this may also apply ...

. The 30-year legal battle by the Le Prestre family to retain the property proved financially ruinous, forcing Urbain to become a forestry worker. He also designed gardens for the local gentry, including the owners of the Château de Ruère, where Vauban spent his early years. Vauban had only one sibling, a sister Charlotte (1638–1645?) who died young, but his cousin, Paul le Prestre (c. 1630 – 1703), was an army officer who later supervised construction of

Les Invalides The Hôtel des Invalides (; ), commonly called (; ), is a complex of buildings in the 7th arrondissement of Paris, France, containing museums and monuments, all relating to the military history of France, as well as a hospital and an old soldi ...

. Three of Paul's sons served in the army, two of whom were killed in action in 1676 and 1677. The third, Antoine (1654–1731), became Vauban's assistant and later a

lieutenant-general Lieutenant general (Lt Gen, LTG and similar) is a military rank used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages, where the title of lieutenant general was held by the second-in-command on the battlefield, who was normall ...

; in 1710, he was appointed Governor of

Béthune Béthune ( ; archaic and ''Bethwyn'' historically in English) is a town in northern France, Subprefectures in France, sub-prefecture of the Pas-de-Calais Departments of France, department. Geography Béthune is located in the Provinces of Fran ...

for life, while he inherited Vauban's titles and the bulk of his lands. Like many contemporaries, Vauban's family was deeply affected by the

Huguenot rebellions The Huguenot rebellions, sometimes called the Rohan Wars after the Huguenot leader Henri, Duke of Rohan, Henri de Rohan, were a series of rebellions of the 1620s in which French people, French Calvinist Protestants (Huguenots), mainly located in ...

of the 1620s, the

Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659) The Franco-Spanish War , May 1635 to November 1659, was fought between Kingdom of France, France and Habsburg Spain, Spain, each supported by various allies at different points. The first phase, beginning in May 1635 and ending with the 1648 Peac ...

, and 1648 to 1653

Fronde The Fronde () was a series of civil wars in the Kingdom of France between 1648 and 1653, occurring in the midst of the Franco-Spanish War, which had begun in 1635. The government of the young King Louis XIV confronted the combined opposition ...

. His maternal grandfather was a Catholic who married a Protestant from

La Rochelle La Rochelle (, , ; Poitevin-Saintongeais: ''La Rochéle'') is a city on the west coast of France and a seaport on the Bay of Biscay, a part of the Atlantic Ocean. It is the capital of the Charente-Maritime Departments of France, department. Wi ...

, and served Huguenot leader Admiral Coligny, while two of his uncles died in the war with Spain.

Career

In 1643, at the age of ten, Vauban was sent to the

Carmelite The Order of the Brothers of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount Carmel (; abbreviated OCarm), known as the Carmelites or sometimes by synecdoche known simply as Carmel, is a mendicant order in the Catholic Church for both men and women. Histo ...

college in

Semur-en-Auxois Semur-en-Auxois () is a Communes of France, commune of the Côte-d'Or Departments of France, department in eastern France. The politician François Patriat, the engineers Edmé Régnier L'Aîné (1751–1825) and Émile Dorand (1866-1922), and th ...

, where he was taught the basics of mathematics, science and geometry. This was relevant, not only for his future career but also his father's work, since the design of neo-classical gardens and fortifications both concerned managing space. These skills were commonly combined; the gardens at

Blenheim Palace Blenheim Palace ( ) is a country house in Woodstock, Oxfordshire, England. It is the seat of the Dukes of Marlborough. Originally called Blenheim Castle, it has been known as Blenheim Palace since the 19th century. One of England's larg ...

were laid out by John Armstrong (1674–1742),

Marlborough Marlborough or the Marlborough may refer to: Places Australia * Marlborough, Queensland * Principality of Marlborough, a short-lived micronation in 1993 * Marlborough Highway, Tasmania; Malborough was an historic name for the place at the sou ...

's chief military engineer. In 1650, Vauban joined the household of his local magnate,

Louis, Grand Condé Louis II de Bourbon, Prince of Condé (8 September 1621 – 11 December 1686), known as (), was a French military commander. A tactician and strategist, he is regarded as one of France's greatest generals, particularly celebrated for his ...

, where he met de Montal; a close neighbour from

Nièvre Nièvre () is a department in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region, central-east France. Named after the river Nièvre, it had a population of 204,452 in 2019.Fronde des nobles, Condé was arrested by the Regency Council, led by

's mother

Anne of Austria Anne of Austria (; ; born Ana María Mauricia; 22 September 1601 – 20 January 1666) was Queen of France from 1615 to 1643 by marriage to King Louis XIII. She was also Queen of Navarre until the kingdom's annexation into the French crown ...

and

Cardinal Mazarin Jules Mazarin (born Giulio Raimondo Mazzarino or Mazarini; 14 July 1602 – 9 March 1661), from 1641 known as Cardinal Mazarin, was an Italian Catholic prelate, diplomat and politician who served as the chief minister to the Kings of France Lou ...

. After being released in 1652, he and his supporters, among them Vauban and de Montal, went into exile in the

Spanish Netherlands The Spanish Netherlands (; ; ; ) (historically in Spanish: , the name "Flanders" was used as a '' pars pro toto'') was the Habsburg Netherlands ruled by the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs from 1556 to 1714. They were a collection of States of t ...

and allied with the Spanish. At the time, it was common for young men to follow the lead of local powerful magnates which would explain the future eagerness of the crown to offer him service in the royal army. Vauban first saw action at

Clermont-en-Argonne Clermont-en-Argonne (, literally ''Clermont in Argonne''; formerly Clermont-sur-Meuse, literally ''Clermont on Meuse'') is a commune in the Meuse department in Grand Est in north-eastern France. The former towns of Auzéville-en-Argonne, Jub ...

and was noticed by Condé as a diligent and energetic soldier that took a keen interest in the practices of siege warfare even at such a young age and he was sometimes entrusted with directing the improvement of local fortifications. In early 1653, when Vauban worked on the defences of

Sainte-Menehould Sainte-Menehould (; ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Marne (department), Marne Departments of France, department in north-eastern France. The 18th-century French playwright Charles-Georges Fenouillot de Falbaire de Quingey (1727–1800) ...

, one of Condé's principal possessions, he was captured by a Royalist patrol and switched sides, serving in the force led by Louis Nicolas de Clerville that took Sainte-Menehould in November 1653. Clerville, later appointed ''Commissaire général des fortifications'', employed him on siege operations and building fortifications. In 1655, Vauban was appointed ''Ingénieur du Roi'' or Royal Engineer, and by the time the war with Spain ended in 1659, he was widely known as a talented engineer of energy and courage. Under the terms of the

Treaty of the Pyrenees The Treaty of the Pyrenees(; ; ) was signed on 7 November 1659 and ended the Franco-Spanish War that had begun in 1635. Negotiations were conducted and the treaty was signed on Pheasant Island, situated in the middle of the Bidasoa River on ...

, Spain ceded much of

French Flanders French Flanders ( ; ; ) is a part of the historical County of Flanders, where Flemish—a Low Franconian dialect cluster of Dutch—was (and to some extent, still is) traditionally spoken. The region lies in the modern-day northern French regi ...

, and Vauban was put in charge of fortifying newly acquired towns such as

Dunkirk Dunkirk ( ; ; ; Picard language, Picard: ''Dunkèke''; ; or ) is a major port city in the Departments of France, department of Nord (French department), Nord in northern France. It lies from the Belgium, Belgian border. It has the third-larg ...

. This pattern of French territorial gains, followed by fortification of new strongpoints, was followed in the 1667–1668

War of Devolution The War of Devolution took place from May 1667 to May 1668. In the course of the war, Kingdom of France, France occupied large parts of the Spanish Netherlands and County of Burgundy, Franche-Comté, both then provinces of the Holy Roman Empire ...

, 1672–1678

Franco-Dutch War The Franco-Dutch War, 1672 to 1678, was primarily fought by Kingdom of France, France and the Dutch Republic, with both sides backed at different times by a variety of allies. Related conflicts include the 1672 to 1674 Third Anglo-Dutch War and ...

and 1683–1684

War of the Reunions The War of the Reunions (1683–84) was a conflict between France, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, with limited involvement by Genoa. It can be seen as a continuation of the War of Devolution (1667–1668) and the Franco-Dutch War (1672–167 ...

. The first fortification Vauban designed was the 1673 siege of Maastricht, although he was subordinate to Louis, who ranked as the senior officer present, and thus took credit for its capture. Vauban was rewarded with a large sum of money, which he used to purchase the Château de Bazouches from his cousin in 1675. After 1673, French strategy in

Flanders Flanders ( or ; ) is the Dutch language, Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium and one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium. However, there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, la ...

was based on a memorandum from Vauban to Louvois, Minister of War, setting out a proposed line of fortresses known as the ''Ceinture de fer'', or ''iron belt'' (see Map). He was made ''Maréchal de camp'' in 1676, and succeeded Clerville as ''Commissaire general des fortifications'' in 1677. During the Nine Years' War, Vauban inflicted a stinging defeat on an Anglo-Dutch invasion force at Camaret, supervised the capture of Namur in 1692, the major French achievement of the war, while the 1697 siege of Ath is often considered his offensive masterpiece. He was rewarded with money and rank: he was made Comte de Vauban, a member of the

Order of the Holy Spirit The Order of the Holy Spirit (; sometimes translated into English as the Order of the Holy Ghost) is a French order of chivalry founded by Henry III of France in 1578. Today, it is a dynastic order under the House of France. It should not be c ...

and

Order of Saint Louis The Royal and Military Order of Saint Louis () is a dynastic order of chivalry founded 5 April 1693 by King Louis XIV, named after Saint Louis (King Louis IX of France). It was intended as a reward for exceptional officers, notable as the fi ...

, and an Honorary Member of the

French Academy of Sciences The French Academy of Sciences (, ) is a learned society, founded in 1666 by Louis XIV at the suggestion of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, to encourage and protect the spirit of French Scientific method, scientific research. It was at the forefron ...

. The numbers needed to conduct a siege, and prevent interference from opponents meant armies of the Nine Years' War often exceeded 100,000 men, sizes unsustainable for pre-industrial societies. This limitation prompted a change in tactics; Marlborough argued that winning one battle was more beneficial than taking 12 fortresses. The armies of the

War of the Spanish Succession The War of the Spanish Succession was a European great power conflict fought between 1701 and 1714. The immediate cause was the death of the childless Charles II of Spain in November 1700, which led to a struggle for control of the Spanish E ...

averaged around 35,000, and siege warfare was superseded by a greater emphasis on mobility. Vauban

In 1702 Vauban was ordered by Louis to attack

Hulst Hulst () is a Municipalities of the Netherlands, municipality and city in southwestern Netherlands in the east of Zeelandic Flanders. History Hulst received City rights in the Netherlands, city rights in the 12th century. Hulst Siege of Hulst ...

. He had however insufficient means available to him and so the Siege of Hulst remains the only siege in which Vauban was not successful as he was forced to retreat. The next year, Vauban directed his final siege, capturing Alt-Brisach and was promoted to

Maréchal de France Marshal of France (, plural ') is a French military distinction, rather than a military rank, that is awarded to generals for exceptional achievements. The title has been awarded since 1185, though briefly abolished (1793–1804) and for a period ...

, marking the end of his military career, although the ''Ceinture de fer'' proved its worth after the French defeat at Ramillies in 1706. Under pressure from superior forces on multiple fronts, France's northern border remained largely intact despite repeated efforts to break it. Capturing Lille cost the Allies 12,000 casualties and most of the 1708 campaigning season; the lack of progress between 1706 and 1712 enabled Louis to negotiate an acceptable peace at

Utrecht Utrecht ( ; ; ) is the List of cities in the Netherlands by province, fourth-largest city of the Netherlands, as well as the capital and the most populous city of the Provinces of the Netherlands, province of Utrecht (province), Utrecht. The ...

in 1713, as opposed to the humiliating terms presented in 1707. With more leisure time, Vauban developed a broader view of his role. His fortifications were designed for mutual support, so they required connecting roads, bridges and canals; garrisons needed to be fed, so he prepared maps showing the location of forges, forests and farms. Since these had to be paid for, he developed an interest in tax policy, and in 1707 published ''La Dîme royale'', documenting the economic misery of the lower classes. His solution was a flat 10% tax on all agricultural and industrial output, and eliminating the exemptions which meant most of the nobility and clergy paid nothing. Although his work was confiscated and destroyed by royal decree, the use of statistics to support his arguments "... establishes him as a founder of modern economics, and precursor of the

Enlightenment Enlightenment or enlighten may refer to: Age of Enlightenment * Age of Enlightenment, period in Western intellectual history from the late 17th to late 18th century, centered in France but also encompassing (alphabetically by country or culture): ...

's socially concerned intellectuals." In the course of his career, Vauban supervised or designed the building of more than 300 separate fortifications. By his own estimate, he supervised more than 40 sieges from 1653 to 1697.

Personal life and death

In 1660, Vauban married Jeanne d'Aunay d'Epiry (ca 1640–1705); they had two daughters, Charlotte (1661–1709) and Jeanne Françoise (1678–1713), as well as a short-lived infant son. He also had a long-term relationship with Marie-Antoinette de Puy-Montbrun, daughter of an exiled

Huguenot The Huguenots ( , ; ) are a Religious denomination, religious group of French people, French Protestants who held to the Reformed (Calvinist) tradition of Protestantism. The term, which may be derived from the name of a Swiss political leader, ...

officer, usually referred to as 'Mademoiselle de Villefranche.' Vauban died in Paris on 30 March 1707; he was buried near his home in

. His grave was destroyed during the French Revolution. In 1808,

Napoleon I Napoleon Bonaparte (born Napoleone di Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French general and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led Military career ...

ordered his heart reburied in

, the resting place of many of France's most famous soldiers.

Doctrines and legacy

Offensive doctrines; siege warfare

While his modern fame rests on the fortifications he built, Vauban's greatest innovations were in offensive operations, an approach he summarised as 'More powder, less blood.' Initially reliant on existing concepts, he later adapted these on lines set out in his memorandum of March 1672, ''Mémoire pour servir à l'instruction dans la conduite des sièges''. In this period, sieges became the dominant form of warfare; during the 1672–1678

, three battles were fought in the

, of which only

Seneffe Seneffe (; ) is a municipality of Wallonia located in the province of Hainaut, Belgium. On 1 January 2006 Seneffe had a total population of 10,743. The total area is 62.77 km² which gives a population density of 171 inhabitants per km². ...

was unrelated to a siege. Their importance was heightened by Louis XIV, who viewed them as low-risk opportunities for demonstrating his military skill and increasing his prestige; he was present at 20 of those conducted by Vauban. The 'siege parallel' had been in development since the mid-16th century but Vauban brought the idea to practical fulfilment at

Maastricht Maastricht ( , , ; ; ; ) is a city and a Municipalities of the Netherlands, municipality in the southeastern Netherlands. It is the capital city, capital and largest city of the province of Limburg (Netherlands), Limburg. Maastricht is loca ...

in 1673. Three parallel trenches were dug in front of the walls, the earth thus excavated being used to create embankments screening the attackers from defensive fire, while bringing them as close to the assault point as possible (see diagram). Artillery was moved into the trenches, allowing them to target the base of the walls at close range, with the defenders unable to depress their own guns enough to counter this; once a breach had been made, it was then stormed. This approach was used in offensive operations well into the 20th century. However, Vauban adapted his approach to the situation, and did not use the siege parallel again until

Valenciennes Valenciennes (, also , , ; ; or ; ) is a communes of France, commune in the Nord (French department), Nord Departments of France, department, Hauts-de-France, France. It lies on the Scheldt () river. Although the city and region experienced ...

in 1677. Always willing to challenge accepted norms, at Valenciennes, he proposed assaulting the breach during the day, rather than at night as was normal practice. He argued this would reduce casualties by surprising the defenders, and allow better co-ordination among the assault force; he was supported by Louis, and the attack proved successful. Vauban made several innovations in the use of siege artillery, including

ricochet firing Ricochet firing is the firing of artillery at a low angle and non-maximal power so as to cause the shells to skip across the ground. Background In traditional artillery tactics, either a cannon, a howitzer or occasionally a mortar would fire a s ...

, and concentrating on specific parts of the fortifications, rather than targeting multiple targets. His Dutch rival

Menno van Coehoorn Menno, Baron van Coehoorn (; March 1641 – 17 March 1704) was a Dutch States Army officer and engineer, regarded as one of the most significant figures in Dutch military history. In an era when siege warfare dominated military campaigns, he a ...

employed a similar approach. While the 'Van Coehoorn method' sought to overwhelm defences with massive firepower, such as the Grand Battery of 200 guns at Namur in 1695, Vauban preferred a more gradual approach. Both had their supporters; Vauban argued his was less costly in terms of casualties, but it took more time, an important consideration in an age when far more soldiers died from disease than in combat.

Defensive doctrines; fortifications

It was accepted even the strongest fortifications would fall, given time; the process was so well understood by the 1690s, betting on the length of a siege became a popular craze. As few states could afford large standing armies, defenders needed time to mobilise; to provide this, fortresses were designed to absorb the attackers' energies, similar to the use of

crumple zone Crumple zones, crush zones or crash zones are a structural safety feature used in vehicles, mainly in automobiles, to increase the time over which a change in velocity (and consequently momentum) occurs from the impact during a collision by a ...

s in modern cars. The French defence of Namur in 1695 showed "how one could effectively win a campaign, by losing a fortress, but exhausting the besiegers." As with the siege parallel, the strength of Vauban's defensive designs was his ability to synthesise and adapt the work of others to create a more powerful whole. His first works used the 'star-shape' or

bastion fort A bastion fort or ''trace italienne'' (a phrase derived from non-standard French, meaning 'Italian outline') is a fortification in a style developed during the early modern period in response to the ascendancy of gunpowder weapons such as c ...

design, also known as the ''trace Italienne'', based on the designs of Antoine de Ville (1596–1656) and Blaise Pagan (1603–1665). His subsequent 'systems' strengthened their internal works with the addition of casemated shoulders and flanks. The principles of Vauban's 'second system' were set out in the 1683 work ''Le Directeur-Général des fortifications,'' and used at

Landau Landau (), officially Landau in der Pfalz (, ), is an autonomous (''kreisfrei'') town surrounded by the Südliche Weinstraße ("Southern Wine Route") district of southern Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It is a university town (since 1990), a long ...

and Mont-Royal, near

Traben-Trarbach Traben-Trarbach () on the Middle Moselle is a town in the Bernkastel-Wittlich district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It is the seat of the like-named ''Verbandsgemeinde'' and a state-recognized climatic spa (''Luftkurort''). The city is loc ...

; both were advanced positions, intended as stepping-off points for French offensives into the

Rhineland The Rhineland ( ; ; ; ) is a loosely defined area of Western Germany along the Rhine, chiefly Middle Rhine, its middle section. It is the main industrial heartland of Germany because of its many factories, and it has historic ties to the Holy ...

. Located above the

Moselle The Moselle ( , ; ; ) is a river that rises in the Vosges mountains and flows through north-eastern France and Luxembourg to western Germany. It is a bank (geography), left bank tributary of the Rhine, which it joins at Koblenz. A sm ...

, Mont-Royal had main walls high, long and space for 12,000 troops; this enormously expensive work was demolished when the French withdrew after the 1697

Treaty of Ryswick The Peace of Ryswick, or Rijswijk, was a series of treaties signed in the Dutch city of Rijswijk between 20 September and 30 October 1697. They ended the 1688 to 1697 Nine Years' War between France and the Grand Alliance, which included the Dutc ...

, and only the foundations remain today.

Fort-Louis Fort-Louis () is a commune in the Bas-Rhin department in Grand Est in north-eastern France. It acquired its name and its principal raison d'être from a 17th-century fort, known as Fort Louis.The fortress name is usually unhyphenated in Engli ...

was another new construction, built on an island in the middle of the

Rhine The Rhine ( ) is one of the List of rivers of Europe, major rivers in Europe. The river begins in the Swiss canton of Graubünden in the southeastern Swiss Alps. It forms part of the Swiss-Liechtenstein border, then part of the Austria–Swit ...

; this allowed Vauban to combine his defensive principles with town planning, although like Mont-Royal, little of it remains. The French retreat from the Rhine after 1697 required new fortresses;

Neuf-Brisach Neuf-Brisach ( or , ; , , in contrast to " Old Breisach"; ) is a fortified town and commune of the department of Haut-Rhin in the French region of Alsace. The fortified town was intended to guard the border between France and the Holy Roman E ...

was the most significant, designed on Vauban's 'third system', and completed after his death by

Louis de Cormontaigne Louis de Cormontaigne (, 1696-1752) was a French military engineer, who was the dominant technical influence on French fortifications in the 18th century. His own designs and writings constantly referenced the work of Vauban (1633-1707) and h ...

. Using ideas from Fort-Louis, this incorporated a regular square grid street pattern inside an octagonal fortification; tenement blocks were built inside each curtain wall, strengthening the defensive walls and shielding more expensive houses from cannon fire. To create a more coherent border, Vauban advocated destroying poor fortifications, and relinquishing territory that was hard to defend. In December 1672, he wrote to Louvois: "I am not for the greater number of places, we already have too many, and please God we had half of that, but all in good condition!" Many of the fortifications designed by Vauban are still standing; in 2008, twelve groups of Vauban fortifications were inscribed on the

UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO ) is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) with the aim of promoting world peace and International secur ...

World Heritage List World Heritage Sites are landmarks and areas with legal protection under an international treaty administered by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, or scientific significance. The sites are judged to contain "cultural and natural heritag ...

for their exceptional engineering and influence on military fortifications from the 17th through the 20th centuries.

Infrastructure and engineering

While often overlooked, Vauban worked on many civilian infrastructure projects, including rebuilding the ports of Brest,

Dunkerque Dunkirk ( ; ; ; Picard language, Picard: ''Dunkèke''; ; or ) is a major port city in the Departments of France, department of Nord (French department), Nord in northern France. It lies from the Belgium, Belgian border. It has the third-larg ...

and

Toulon Toulon (, , ; , , ) is a city in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of southeastern France. Located on the French Riviera and the historical Provence, it is the prefecture of the Var (department), Var department. The Commune of Toulon h ...

. Since his fortifications were designed for mutual support, roads and waterways were an essential part of their design, such as the

, a canal built in 1682 to transport materials for the fortification of

Strasbourg Strasbourg ( , ; ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture and largest city of the Grand Est Regions of France, region of Geography of France, eastern France, in the historic region of Alsace. It is the prefecture of the Bas-Rhin Departmen ...

. As early as 1684, Vauban published design tables for retaining walls with heights between 3 and 25 metres. Three years later, Vauban, in his role as newly appointed Commissary General of all French fortifications, sent his engineers in the Corps du Génie Militaire his Profil général pour les murs de soutènement in which he presented his retaining wall profiles that were later adopted by engineering offers such as Bélidor (1729), Poncelet (1840) and Wheeler (1870). He also provided advice on the repair and enlargement of the

Canal du Midi The Canal du Midi (; ) is a long canal in Southern France (). Originally named the ''Canal Royal en Languedoc'' (Royal Canal in Languedoc) and renamed by French revolutionaries to ''Canal du Midi'' in 1789, the canal is considered one of the g ...

in 1686. His holistic approach to urban planning, which integrated city defences with layout and infrastructure, is most obvious at Neuf-Brisach. His legacy is recognised in the Vauban district in Freiburg, named after a French army base on the same location, which developed as a model for sustainable neighbourhoods post-1998. Vauban's 'scientific approach' and focus on large infrastructure projects strongly influenced American military and civil engineering and inspired the creation of the

US Corps of Engineers The United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) is the military engineering branch of the United States Army. A direct reporting unit (DRU), it has three primary mission areas: #The Engineer Regiment, Engineer Regiment, military constr ...

in 1824. Until 1866, West Point's curriculum was modelled on that of the French Ecole Polytechnique and designed to produce officers with skills in engineering and mathematics. To ensure a steady supply of skilled engineers, in 1690 Vauban established the ''Corps royal des ingénieurs militaires''; until his death, candidates had to pass an examination administered by Vauban himself. Young French Huguenots made up a disproportionately high number of successful engineers due to the social and educational characteristics of French Protestantism. After the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, a significant number of these engineers joined the English and Dutch armies to fight in Ireland, Flanders and Spain. Many of his publications, including ''Traité de l'attaque des places'' and ''Traité des mines'', were written at the end of his career to provide a training curriculum for his successors.

Assessment

Vauban's offensive tactics remained relevant for centuries; his principles were clearly identifiable in those used by the

Việt Minh The Việt Minh (, ) is the common and abbreviated name of the League for Independence of Vietnam ( or , ; ), which was a communist-led national independence coalition formed at Pác Bó by Hồ Chí Minh on 19 May 1941. Also known as the Vi ...

Dien Bien Phu Diethylenetriamine (abbreviated and also known as 2,2’-Iminodi(ethylamine)) is an organic compound with the formula HN(CH2CH2NH2)2. This colourless hygroscopic liquid is soluble in water and polar organic solvents, but not simple hydrocarbons. ...

in 1954. His defensive fortifications dated far more quickly, partly due to the enormous investment required; Vauban himself estimated that in 1678, 1694 and 1705, between 40 and 45% of the French army was assigned to garrison duty. Vauban's reputation meant his designs remained in use long after developments in artillery made them obsolete, for example the Dutch fort of

Bourtange Bourtange (; Gronings: ''Boertang'') is a village with a population of 430 in the municipality of Westerwolde in the Netherlands. It is situated in the region Westerwolde in the east of the province of Groningen near the German border. Fort Bou ...

, built in 1742. The ''Corps des ingénieurs militaires'' was based on his teachings; between 1699 and 1743, only 631 new candidates were accepted, the vast majority relatives of existing or former members. As a result, French military engineering became ultra-conservative, while many 'new' works used his designs, or professed to do so, such as those built by Louis de Cortmontaigne at

Metz Metz ( , , , then ) is a city in northeast France located at the confluence of the Moselle (river), Moselle and the Seille (Moselle), Seille rivers. Metz is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Moselle (department), Moselle Departments ...

in 1728–1733. This persisted into the late 19th century; Fort de Queuleu, built in 1867 near Metz, is recognisably a Vauban-style design. Some French engineers continued to be innovators, notably the

Marquis de Montalembert A marquess (; ) is a nobleman of high hereditary rank in various European peerages and in those of some of their former colonies. The German-language equivalent is Markgraf (margrave). A woman with the rank of a marquess or the wife (or widow) ...

, who published ''La Fortification perpendiculaire'' in 1776, a rejection of the principles advocated by Vauban and his successors; his ideas became the prevailing orthodoxy in much of Europe but were dismissed in France.

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Bibliography

* * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Vauban 1633 births 1707 deaths 17th-century French architects 18th-century French architects 17th-century French engineers 18th-century French engineers French military engineers French military personnel of the Nine Years' War French marquesses Marshals of France Members of the French Academy of Sciences French military writers Military theorists People from Yonne Knights of the Order of Saint Louis Forestry in France Military personnel of the Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659) People of the War of Devolution