Swedish–Novgorodian Wars
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The Swedish–Novgorodian Wars were a series of armed conflicts during the 12th and 13th centuries, fought between the
Novgorod Republic The Novgorod Republic () was a medieval state that existed from the 12th to 15th centuries in northern Russia, stretching from the Gulf of Finland in the west to the northern Ural Mountains in the east. Its capital was the city of Novgorod. The ...
and medieval
Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and north, and Finland to the east. At , Sweden is the largest Nordic count ...
over control of the
Gulf of Finland The Gulf of Finland (; ; ; ) is the easternmost arm of the Baltic Sea. It extends between Finland to the north and Estonia to the south, to Saint Petersburg—the second largest city of Russia—to the east, where the river Neva drains into it. ...
. Part of the trade
route from the Varangians to the Greeks The trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks was a medieval trade route that connected Scandinavia, Kievan Rus' and the Eastern Roman Empire. The route allowed merchants along its length to establish a direct prosperous trade with the Empir ...
, the area was vital to the
Hanseatic League The Hanseatic League was a Middle Ages, medieval commercial and defensive network of merchant guilds and market towns in Central Europe, Central and Northern Europe, Northern Europe. Growing from a few Northern Germany, North German towns in the ...
. The clashes between Catholic Swedes and Orthodox Novgorodians had religious overtones, but before the 14th century there is no knowledge of official crusade bulls issued by the
pope The pope is the bishop of Rome and the Head of the Church#Catholic Church, visible head of the worldwide Catholic Church. He is also known as the supreme pontiff, Roman pontiff, or sovereign pontiff. From the 8th century until 1870, the po ...
.


Background

Scandinavians maintained trade relations and other links with Novgorod from the
Viking Age The Viking Age (about ) was the period during the Middle Ages when Norsemen known as Vikings undertook large-scale raiding, colonising, conquest, and trading throughout Europe and reached North America. The Viking Age applies not only to their ...
onwards. Merchants from
Gotland Gotland (; ; ''Gutland'' in Gutnish), also historically spelled Gottland or Gothland (), is Sweden's largest island. It is also a Provinces of Sweden, province/Counties of Sweden, county (Swedish län), Municipalities of Sweden, municipality, a ...
operated both their own trading house ( Gutagård) and Saint Olaf's Church in Novgorod. Scandinavians also carried out isolated raids on Novgorod.
Eiríkr Hákonarson Erik Hakonsson, also known as Eric of Hlathir or Eric of Norway (; 960s – 1020s), was Earl of Lade, Governor of Norway and Earl of Northumbria. He was the son of Earl Hákon Sigurðarson and brother of the legendary Aud Haakonsdottir of Lade. ...
raided Ladoga in 997, and his brother Sveinn Hákonarson followed suit in 1015. After the marriage of Yaroslav I (Grand Prince of Novgorod and Kiev) to Ingegerd of Sweden in 1019, Ladoga became a
jarl Jarl was a rank of the nobility in Scandinavia during the Viking Age and Early Middle Ages. The institution evolved over time and varied by region. In Old Norse, it meant "chieftain", specifically one appointed to rule a territory in a king's stea ...
dom in the orbit of
Kievan Rus' Kievan Rus', also known as Kyivan Rus,. * was the first East Slavs, East Slavic state and later an amalgam of principalities in Eastern Europe from the late 9th to the mid-13th century.John Channon & Robert Hudson, ''Penguin Historical At ...
. It was ruled by
Ragnvald Ulfsson Ragnvald Ulfsson the Old () was a jarl of Västergötland or Östergötland and was married to a sister of King Olav Tryggvason.Winroth 1995–1997:616 Biography According to Snorri, Ragnvald was the son of jarl Ulf Tostesson. He was al ...
, the alleged father of King Stenkil of Sweden (reigned 1060–1066). Dynastic marriages took place between Rus' and Scandinavian royal families—for example, in the 1090s Stenkil's granddaughter Christina married Mstislav of Novgorod, upon whose death in 1132
Novgorod Veliky Novgorod ( ; , ; ), also known simply as Novgorod (), is the largest city and administrative centre of Novgorod Oblast, Russia. It is one of the oldest cities in Russia, being first mentioned in the 9th century. The city lies along the V ...
seceded from Kievan Rus'.


12th century

The 12th century is poorly documented in Sweden, and Old East Slavic documents are fragmentary.


12th century in the ''Novgorod First Chronicle''

Arnold Lelis (2005) summarised that the ''
Novgorod First Chronicle The Novgorod First Chronicle ( rus, Новгоро́дская пе́рвая ле́топись, Novgoródskaya pérvaya létopisʹ, nəvɡɐˈrot͡skəjə ˈpʲervəjə ˈlʲetəpʲɪsʲ, commonly abbreviated as NPL), also known by its 1914 Eng ...
'' (NPL) mentions 42 instances of warfare between 1111 and 1205. Amongst other conflicts, 18 of them were with other Rus' states and cities over dynastic succession; 11 with the
Chud Chud or Chude (, , ) is a term historically applied in the early East Slavic annals to several Baltic Finnic peoples in the area of what is now Estonia, Karelia and Northwestern Russia. It has also been used to refer to other Finno-Ugric peo ...
'; and only 2 (in 1142 and 1164) involved Swedes, the first of which concerned merchants that may or may not have been "Novgorodian". According to the ''sub anno'' 1142 entry in the NPL, a "''
knyaz A , also , ''knjaz'' or (), is a historical Slavs, Slavic title, used both as a royal and noble title in different times. It is usually translated into English language, English as 'prince', 'king' or 'duke', depending on specific historical c ...
'' of the '' Svei'' with a Bishop in sixty boats attacked merchants who were coming from over sea in three boats", and "they killed one hundred and fifty of them." Scholars disagree on how to interpret this passage, because it is not said whether the merchants were Novgorodians or not; nor whether they were coming from Novgorod, or going to Novgorod. It is also unclear who supposedly defeated and killed who; earlier authors such as
Nikolay Karamzin Nikolay Mikhailovich Karamzin () was a Russian historian, writer, poet and critic. He is best remembered for his fundamental ''History of the Russian State'', a 12-volume national history. Early life Karamzin was born in the small village of ...
(1826) and Vladimir Pashuto (1968) concluded that the "Novgorodian" merchants defeated the Swedish raiders, while Beñat Elortza Larrea (2023) wrote that the Swedish fleet ended up "intercepting three merchant ships from Novgorod and killing their crews." Philip Line (2007) pointed out that it is uncertain whether this raid was formally sponsored by the king of Sweden or not, nor whether the Swedes co-ordinated their raid with the Yem people, who had unsuccessfully raided Ladoga earlier in 1142 according to the NPL, as the same chronicle mentions the Yem raiding on their own in 1149 and 1228. The NPL reports under the year 1164 that a Swedish fleet of 55 ships approached Ladoga, which was then defeated on the river Voronai, with most of its ships captured by Novgorod.


12th century in ''Erik's Chronicle''

According to '' Erik's Chronicle'',
Karelians Karelians (; ; ; ) are a Baltic Finnic ethnic group who are indigenous to the historical region of Karelia, which is today split between Finland and Russia. Karelians living in Russian Karelia are considered a distinct ethnic group closely ...
, supported by Novgorod, attacked mainland Sweden in late 12th century and destroyed Sigtuna, which was then Sweden's most important city. However, Novgorodian sources do not mention these events, and earlier Swedish sources refer to the attackers of Sigtuna simply as "heathens", without specifying their identity further. The chronicle also tells that Jon Jarl spent nine years fighting against Novgorodians and Ingrians at the end of the 12th century. Jon's story is not known from other sources.


13th century

Pope Honorius III (1216–1227) received a number of petitions regarding new Baltic crusades, mainly concerning Prussia and Livonia, but also a report from the Swedish Archbishop concerning difficulties with their mission in Finland. At that time, Honorius responded to the Swedish Archbishop only by declaring an embargo against trade with pagans in the region; it is not known if the Swedes requested further help for the moment. The 1230s and 1240s saw the first papal involvement in Latin crusades against the
Novgorod Republic The Novgorod Republic () was a medieval state that existed from the 12th to 15th centuries in northern Russia, stretching from the Gulf of Finland in the west to the northern Ural Mountains in the east. Its capital was the city of Novgorod. The ...
. In 1237, the Swedes received papal authorization to launch a crusade, and in 1240, new campaigns began in the easternmost part of the Baltic region. The Finnish mission's eastward expansion led to a clash between Sweden and Novgorod, since the Karelians had been allies and tributaries of Novgorod since the mid-12th century. After a successful campaign into Tavastia, the Swedes advanced further east until they were stopped by a Novgorodian army led by Prince Alexander Yaroslavich, who supposedly defeated the Swedes in the
Battle of the Neva The Battle of the Neva (; ; ) was fought between the Novgorod Republic, along with Karelians, and the Kingdom of Sweden (Middle Ages), Kingdom of Sweden, including Kingdom of Norway (872–1397), Norwegian, Finns proper, Finnish and Tavastians, ...
in July 1240 and received the nickname ''Nevsky''. The only source of information on the attack is a Novgorodian chronicle. Novgorod fought against the crusade for economic reasons, to protect their monopoly of the Karelian fur trade. From then on, Sweden moved its interest to
Finland Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It borders Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of Bothnia to the west and the Gulf of Finland to the south, ...
. Its troops did not return to the Neva before the end of the 13th century, when it had gained a hold of western Finland. Earlier in 1220, Swedes had also tried to establish a bridgehead in
Estonia Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia, is a country in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland across from Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea across from Sweden, to the south by Latvia, and to the east by Ru ...
, in vain. Apart from Ladoga, Novgorodian interests clashed with Sweden's in Finland, where Novgorodian forces held expeditions on numerous occasions from the 11th century onward. The raid in the winter of 1226–1227 led to heavy losses on the Finnish side. A Finnish retaliatory raid against Ladoga in 1228 ended in defeat, contributing to the Finns' subjugation by the Catholic Swedes during the
Second Swedish Crusade The Second Swedish Crusade was a military expedition by the Kingdom of Sweden into Tavastia (''Häme'') in southern Finland described by '' Erik's Chronicle''. According to the chronicle, the Swedes defeated the pagan Tavastians under the leade ...
in 1249. Seven years later, the Novgorodians devastated Swedish Finland again. In 1293 the Swedes won a part of western
Karelia Karelia (; Karelian language, Karelian and ; , historically Коре́ла, ''Korela'' []; ) is an area in Northern Europe of historical significance for Russia (including the Soviet Union, Soviet era), Finland, and Sweden. It is currentl ...
and built the fortress of [ Viborg there. This expedition has traditionally been dubbed as the
Third Swedish Crusade The Third Swedish Crusade to Finland was a Swedish military expedition against the pagan Karelia (historical province of Finland), Karelians from 1293 to 1295 in which the Swedes successfully expanded their borders eastwards and gained further co ...
. Seven years later, they founded the fortress of
Landskrona Landskrona is a town in Scania, Sweden. Located on the shores of the Öresund, it occupies a natural port, which has lent the town at first military and subsequent commercial significance. Ferries operate from Landskrona to the island of Ven, an ...
in the mouth of the Neva, on the river
Okhta The Okhta () is a river in Vsevolozhsky District of Leningrad Oblast and the eastern part of the city of Saint Petersburg, Russia. It is the largest right tributary of the river Neva. It joins the Neva upstream of the Neva's mouth, within the c ...
, and ruined the Novgorod settlements on the Neva. Later that year, the Novgorod troops retaliated by destroying Landskrona.


14th century

In 1311, the Novgorodians devastated central Finland, where the Swedes had recently built the new Hakoinen Castle, starting the Häme War. In response, a Swedish fleet embarked towards Ladoga and set that trade emporium on fire. Three years later, the Karelians' discontent with Novgorod's rule broke out into the open, as they killed Novgorodian governors and sought help in Sweden. After several months of hostilities, Karelia submitted to Novgorod's authority again. In 1318 Novgorod attacked Turku in southwestern Finland, burning the city and the cathedral as well as the episcopal castle in Kuusisto Castle. Four years later, they besieged Viborg and founded Viborg and founded Oreshek, an important fortress dominating the entrance to Lake Ladoga">Oreshek">Viborg and founded Oreshek, an important fortress dominating the entrance to Lake Ladoga. After the Kexholm War (1321–1323), the first treaty concluded by the parties to the conflict was the Treaty of Nöteborg (12 August 1323), followed by the Treaty of Novgorod (1326), Treaty of Novgorod between Novgorod and
Norway Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and the archipelago of Svalbard also form part of the Kingdom of ...
in 1326. The treaties sought to bring "eternal peace" to the region. As early as 1328, Sweden was encouraging settlers to take over the northern coast of the
Gulf of Bothnia The Gulf of Bothnia (; ; ) is divided into the Bothnian Bay and the Bothnian Sea, and it is the northernmost arm of the Baltic Sea, between Finland's west coast ( East Bothnia) and the northern part of Sweden's east coast ( West Bothnia an ...
, which was defined by the treaty as Novgorod's possession. When Karelians rebelled against Novgorod in 1337, King
Magnus Eriksson Magnus Eriksson (April or May 1316  – 1 December 1374) was King of Sweden from 1319 to 1364, King of Norway as Magnus VII from 1319 to 1355, and ruler of Scania from 1332 to 1360. By adversaries he has been called ''Magnus Smek'' (). Medi ...
sent his troops in their support, managing to briefly occupy
Korela Fortress Korela Fortress (; ; ) is a medieval fortress in the town of Priozersk, Leningrad Oblast, Russia. Origin The original fortification was built by Karelians but the castle seen today is from Middle Ages, medieval times. It was first mentioned in ...
( Sten Bielke's war against Novgorod). Next year, Novgorod besieged Viborg, but an armistice was soon agreed upon. After ten years of peace, the king felt ready to renew hostilities and demanded the Novgorodians to recognise the pope's authority. According to the '' Novgorod First'' and '' Fourth Chronicles'', the king demanded that the Novgorodians debate with his "philosophers" ( Catholic theologians) and whoever lost would convert to the religion of the winner. Novgorodian archbishop Vasily Kalika conferred with the ''
posadnik A posadnik (, ) was a representative of the prince in some towns during the times of Kievan Rus', and later the highest-ranking official (mayor) in Novgorod (from 1136) and Pskov (from 1308). In the early 12th century, Novgorod won the right to ...
'' and other members of the city's elite and told the king that, since they had received Christianity from
Constantinople Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...
, he should send his philosophers there to debate with the
Byzantine The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived the events that caused the fall of the Western Roman E ...
s. Having received such a response, the king sent his army to Oreshek and set it ablaze. Novgorod soon recovered the lost ground. The king attempted yet another fruitless attack in 1350. In the same year, the
Black Death The Black Death was a bubonic plague pandemic that occurred in Europe from 1346 to 1353. It was one of the list of epidemics, most fatal pandemics in human history; as many as people perished, perhaps 50% of Europe's 14th century population. ...
broke out in Northern Europe, effectively ending further hostilities. Later skirmishes were more sporadic. Sweden's attempts to control the Gulf of Bothnia resulted in Novgorod beginning construction of a castle near the
Oulujoki Oulujoki () is a river in North Ostrobothnia, Finland. Its name in Finnish literally means "Oulu River", originally in old Northern Ostrobothnian dialect literally "Flood River". Its origin is Oulujärvi, and its watershed area covers a signif ...
delta in the 1370s. Sweden replied by establishing their own castle nearby. Novgorod assaulted it in 1377, but was unable to take it. In the following year,
Pope Gregory XI Pope Gregory XI (; born Pierre Roger de Beaufort; c. 1329 – 27 March 1378) was head of the Catholic Church from 30 December 1370 to his death, in March 1378. He was the seventh and last Avignon pope and the most recent French pope. In 1377, ...
intervened and issued a crusade bull against Novgorod. Soon afterwards, the Novgorodians retreated from Ostrobothnia, leaving it for the Swedes. In the late 14th century, the Novgorodians set up the fiefs of Korela, Oreshek,
Koporye Koporye (; Finnish: ''Kaprio''; ) is a historic village ('' selo'') in Leningrad Oblast, Russia, located about west of St. Petersburg and south of the Koporye Bay of the Baltic Sea. Its population in 2017 was 1,603. History The first w ...
, Luga, and Ladoga as a sort of
buffer state A buffer state is a country geographically lying between two rival or potentially hostile great powers. Its existence can sometimes be thought to prevent conflict between them. A buffer state is sometimes a mutually agreed upon area lying between t ...
between their core dominions and Sweden. Several
Lithuania Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania, is a country in the Baltic region of Europe. It is one of three Baltic states and lies on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, bordered by Latvia to the north, Belarus to the east and south, P ...
n dukes renowned for their military skills were invited to rule this
Ingria Ingria (; ; ; ) is a historical region including, and adjacent to, what is now the city of Saint Petersburg in northwestern Russia. The region lies along the southeastern shore of the Gulf of Finland, bordered by Lake Ladoga on the Karelian ...
n duchy;
Narimantas Narimantas or Narymunt (baptized ''Gleb''; 1277 or just before 1300 (according to Wasilewski 1992) – 2 February 1348) was a Lithuanian duke and the second eldest son of Gediminas, Grand Duke of Lithuania. During various periods of his life, h ...
, his son Patrikas, and then Lengvenis.


15th century

Hostilities between the two powers were renewed in 1392 and 1411. However, Sweden had, by then, become a member state in the quarrelsome
Kalmar Union The Kalmar Union was a personal union in Scandinavia, agreed at Kalmar in Sweden as designed by Queen Margaret I of Denmark, Margaret of Denmark. From 1397 to 1523, it joined under a single monarch the three kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden (then in ...
, and was preoccupied by the Scandinavian power struggle for the entire 15th century. The last conflict took place in 1445, several decades before Novgorod was absorbed into
Muscovy Muscovy or Moscovia () is an alternative name for the Principality of Moscow (1263–1547) and the Tsardom of Russia (1547–1721). It may also refer to: *Muscovy Company, an English trading company chartered in 1555 *Muscovy duck (''Cairina mosch ...
. Novgorod's demise did not result in peace, however, and conflict continued between the Principality of Moscow (later known as the
Tsardom of Russia The Tsardom of Russia, also known as the Tsardom of Moscow, was the centralized Russian state from the assumption of the title of tsar by Ivan the Terrible, Ivan IV in 1547 until the foundation of the Russian Empire by Peter the Great in 1721. ...
) and Sweden until the early 19th century.


List of wars


See also

*
Capture of Novgorod (1611) The capture of Novgorod occurred during the Time of Troubles, which entailed the Swedish occupation of Veliky Novgorod, Novgorod from July 1611 until its return to Tsardom of Russia, Russia in 1617 as a result of the Treaty of Stolbovo. Backgroun ...
*


Notes


References


Bibliography


Primary sources

* ''
Novgorod First Chronicle The Novgorod First Chronicle ( rus, Новгоро́дская пе́рвая ле́топись, Novgoródskaya pérvaya létopisʹ, nəvɡɐˈrot͡skəjə ˈpʲervəjə ˈlʲetəpʲɪsʲ, commonly abbreviated as NPL), also known by its 1914 Eng ...
'' (NPL, 1275), ''sub anno'' 6650 (1142) ** (Church Slavonic ''Synodal Scroll'' critical edition) – digitised version of the late-13th-century ''Synodal Scroll'' edition (or "Older Edition") of the ''Novgorod First Chronicle'' (''Synodalnyy'' NPL). ** (modern English translation) * '' Erik's Chronicle'' ( 1330) ** (modern English translation) ''The Chronicle of Duke Erik : a Verse Epic from Medieval Sweden'' (2012).


Literature

* * * * * * * ** * * *


Further reading

* * {{DEFAULTSORT:Swedish-Novgorodian Wars 12th-century conflicts 12th century in Sweden 13th-century conflicts 13th century in Sweden Eastern Orthodox–Catholic conflicts Medieval Finland Military history of Finland Northern Crusades Wars involving Sweden Wars involving the Novgorod Republic