The Sun Temple of Modhera is a

Hindu temple A Hindu temple, also known as Mandir, Devasthanam, Pura, or Kovil, is a sacred place where Hindus worship and show their devotion to Hindu deities, deities through worship, sacrifice, and prayers. It is considered the house of the god to who ...

dedicated to the solar deity

Surya Surya ( ; , ) is the Sun#Dalal, Dalal, p. 399 as well as the solar deity in Hinduism. He is traditionally one of the major five deities in the Smarta tradition, Smarta tradition, all of whom are considered as equivalent deities in the Panchaya ...

located at Modhera village of Mehsana district,

Gujarat Gujarat () is a States of India, state along the Western India, western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the List of states and union territories ...

, India. It is situated on the bank of the river Pushpavati. It was built after 1026-27 CE during the reign of Bhima I of the

Chaulukya dynasty The Chaulukya dynasty (), also Solanki dynasty, was a dynasty that ruled parts of what are now Gujarat and Rajasthan in north-western India, between and . Their capital was located at Anahilavada (modern Patan). At times, their rule extended ...

. No worship is offered now and it is a protected monument maintained by the

Archaeological Survey of India The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is an Indian government agency that is responsible for archaeological research and the conservation and preservation of cultural historical monuments in the country. It was founded in 1861 by Alexander ...

. The temple complex has three components: ''Gūḍhamanḍapa'', the shrine hall; ''Sabhamanḍapa'', the assembly hall and ''Kunḍa'', the reservoir. The halls have intricately carved exterior and pillars. The reservoir has steps to reach the bottom and numerous small shrines.

History

Sun Temple of Modhera was earlier a part of Patan District in 2013 and later it was made a part of Mehsana District. The shrine proper of the Sun Temple was built during the reign of Bhima I of

. Earlier, during 1024–1025,

Mahmud of Ghazni Abu al-Qasim Mahmud ibn Sabuktigin (; 2 November 971 – 30 April 1030), usually known as Mahmud of Ghazni or Mahmud Ghaznavi (), was Sultan of the Ghaznavid Empire, ruling from 998 to 1030. During his reign and in medieval sources, he is usuall ...

had invaded Bhima's kingdom, and a force of around 20,000 soldiers had unsuccessfully tried to check his advance at Modhera. Historian A. K. Majumdar theorizes that the Sun Temple might have been built to commemorate this defense. On a block in the western wall of the cella, there is an upside down inscription "

Vikram Samvat Vikram Samvat (ISO: ''Vikrama Saṁvata''; abbreviated VS), also known as the Vikrami calendar is a Hindu calendar historically used in the Indian subcontinent and still also used in several Indian states and Nepal. It is a lunisolar calendar ...

1083" carelessly incised in Devnagari script which correspond to 1026-1027 CE. No other date is found. As the inscription is upside down, it evidences the destruction and reconstruction of the cella. Due to the position of the inscription, it is not firmly considered as the date of construction. On the stylistic ground, it is known that the ''Kunda'' with its corner shrines was built earlier at the beginning of the 11th century. The inscription is considered as the date of destruction by Ghazni instead of the construction. Soon after Bhima had returned to power. So the temple proper, the miniature and the niche shrines in the tank were built shortly after 1026 CE. The dancing hall was added much later in the third quarter of the 12th century along with the gateways, the porch of the temple proper and the doorframes of the temple and the cella during the reign of the

Karna Karna (Sanskrit: कर्ण, IAST: ''Karṇa''), also known as Vasusena, Anga-Raja, Sutaputra and Radheya, is one of the major characters in the Hindu epic ''Mahābhārata''. He is the son of Surya (the Sun deity) and princess Kunti (later ...

. The temple is built on 23.6° latitude (approximately near

Tropic of Cancer The Tropic of Cancer, also known as the Northern Tropic, is the Earth's northernmost circle of latitude where the Sun can be seen directly overhead. This occurs on the June solstice, when the Northern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun ...

). The place was later known as ''Sita ni Chauri'' and ''Ramkund'' locally. No worship is offered here now. The temple is the

Monument of National Importance A monument is a type of structure that was explicitly created to commemorate a person or event, or which has become relevant to a social group as a part of their remembrance of historic times or cultural heritage, due to its artistic, historical ...

and is maintained by the Archeological Survey of India. It was added to the tentative list of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee in December 2022.

Architecture

The temple complex is built in

Māru-Gurjara style Māru-Gurjara architecture or Solaṅkī style, is the style of West Indian temple architecture that originated in Gujarat and Rajasthan from the 11th to 13th centuries, under the Chaulukya dynasty (also called Solaṅkī dynasty). Although or ...

(Chaulukya style). The temple complex has three axially aligned components; the shrine proper (''garbhagriha'') in a hall (''gudhamandapa''), the outer or assembly hall (''sabhamandapa'' or ''rangamandapa'') and a sacred reservoir (''kunda''). The ''Sabhamandapa'' is not in continuation with ''Gudhamandapa'' but is placed little away as a separate structure. Both are built on a paved platform. Their roofs collapsed long ago leaving behind a few lower-most courses. Both roofs are 15' 9" in diameter but are constructed differently. The platform or plinth is inverted lotus-shaped.

''Gudhamandapa'' and ''Garbhagriha''

The ''Gudhamandapa'' measures 51 feet 9 inches by 25 feet 8 inches. It is almost equally divided into ''Gudhamandapa'', the hall and ''Garbhgriha'', the shrine proper. Both are rectangular in plan with one projection on each of the smaller sides and two projections on each of the longer sides. These projections on the smaller sides form the entrance and the back of the shrine. The three projections of the outer wall of ''Gudhamandapa'' had windows on each side and the east projection had the doorway. These windows had perforated stone screens; the northern is in ruins and the southern is missing. ''Pradakshinamarga'' is formed by the passage between the walls of ''Garbhgriha'' and the outer walls of ''Gudhamandapa''. The roof of passage has stones slabs carved with rosettes. The ''Shikhara'' of it no longer exists.

''Garbhagriha''

The ''Garbhagriha'', the shrine proper or sanctum sanctorum is square measuring 11 feet from inside. The shrine had two cells; a cell below the level of the upper cell. The floor of the upper cell is now fallen which once housed the image of a deity. The seat of the image is now in a pit. The lower cell was probably used for storage. The walls inside the shrine are plain and the outer wall is decorated. The doorway has carved figures of seated Surya in panels surrounded by dancers and amorous couples. All figures are mutilated and the images on the door-lintel are completely destroyed. The sanctum sanctorum is designed in a way that the first rays of rising sun lit up the image of Surya during solar

equinox A solar equinox is a moment in time when the Sun appears directly above the equator, rather than to its north or south. On the day of the equinox, the Sun appears to rise directly east and set directly west. This occurs twice each year, arou ...

days and on

summer solstice The summer solstice or estival solstice occurs when one of Earth's poles has its maximum tilt toward the Sun. It happens twice yearly, once in each hemisphere ( Northern and Southern). The summer solstice is the day with the longest peri ...

day, the sun shines directly above the temple at noon casting no shadow.

''Gudhamandapa''

;Base moldings The outer walls of the shrine is highly decorated. The base and walls of the shrine and hall are divided into several stretches with unique carvings. The ''Pitha'' or ''adhisthana'', the base has the two square members called ''Bhat'' followed by a cyma recta carving (lower part convex and upper part concave). It is followed by ''padma'' or ''padmaka'', the molding in form of an inverted lotus. The next is ''antarita'', a fillet or an astragal with a sharp edge between two recesses. Above this is ''patta'' having thin molding called ''chhaja'' at its lower edge. The next is another ''chhaja'' separated by neck, ''alinga''. The next broad band, ''patti'', is ''gajathara'' carved with elephants. The following band ''narathara'' has figures of men in different attitudes. ;''Mandovara'' or wall moldings ''Mandovara'', the wall moldings start with ''kumbha'', a pitcher. It has a broad undecorated band at the lower part while the middle part is decorated with oval discs. It is followed by ''kalasha'', a pitcher. The next is a broad band with ''chaitya''-windows called ''kevala'' followed by similar called ''manchi''. These two bands are separated by a deep band. There is a thin fillet above which the major paneled face of the wall called ''jangha'' exist. These panels are decorated with figures of gods but the figures of Surya are placed prominently than others as the temple is dedicated to him. Other panels are decorated with dancers and other figures. The figures of Surya are prominently carved on three niches of shrine proper as well as on each side of three windows in the outer wall of ''Gudhamandapa''. The figures of Surya is in standing position with two arms holding lotuses and driven by seven horses. It has some Persian influences. The walls have 12 niches showing the different aspects of Surya in each month. Other figures include eight Dikpals,

Vishwakarma Vishvakarma or Vishvakarman (, ) is a craftsman deity and the divine architect of the Deva (Hinduism), devas in contemporary Hinduism. In the early texts, the craftsman deity was known as Tvastar and the word "Vishvakarma" was originally used a ...

Varuna Varuna (; , ) is a Hindu god. He is one of the earliest deities in pantheon, whose role underwent a significant transformation from the Vedic to the Puranic periods. In the early Vedic era, Varuna is seen as the god-sovereign, ruling the sky ...

Agni Agni ( ) is the Deva (Hinduism), Hindu god of fire. As the Guardians of the directions#Aṣṭa-Dikpāla ("Guardians of Eight Directions"), guardian deity of the southeast direction, he is typically found in southeast corners of Hindu temples. ...

Ganesha Ganesha or Ganesh (, , ), also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka and Pillaiyar, is one of the best-known and most worshipped Deva (Hinduism), deities in the Hindu deities, Hindu pantheon and is the Supreme God in the Ganapatya sect. His depictions ...

, and

Saraswati Saraswati (, ), also spelled as Sarasvati, is one of the principal Devi, goddesses in Hinduism, revered as the goddess of knowledge, education, learning, arts, speech, poetry, music, purification, language and culture. Together with the godde ...

. Every figure in the panel has a small cornice over it surmounted with a triangular pediment consisting of ''chaitya''-a window which is called ''udgam''. The next projecting band with ''chaitya''-window and ''kirtimukha'' is called ''malakval''. The topmost is the major cornice called ''chhajli''. This is followed by ''shikhara'' which no longer exist. The ''Vimana'' had horizontal geometrical and figurative bands which rising to create the Mount Meru-like ''shikhara''. The central spire had ''Urushringa'', the miniature shrines. It is judged by the shrines on the steps of ''Kunda''. ;''Mandapa'' The ''Mandapa'', a hall was roofed by a dome which probably rose in a concentric manner. It is supported by eight principal pillars below arranged in an octagon, four pillars in front of shrine proper and two each in the recesses of windows and door.

''Sabhamandapa''

''Sabhamandapa'' or ''Rangamandapa'', the assembly hall or dancing hall is parallelogram in plan with rows of pillars opening entrance on each side diagonally. The extensively carved exterior has a series of recessed corners giving an impression of the star-like plan of it. There are 52 intricately carved pillars.

Madhusudan Dhaky Madhusudan Amilal Dhaky (31 July 1927 – 29 July 2016) was an architectural and art historian from Gujarat, India. He had written extensively on Indian temple architecture, Jain literature and art. Life Dhaky was born on 31 July 1927 in Porban ...

has suggested that the ''sabhamandapa'' may have been later addition based on style and construction. ;Base moldings The ''pitha'' is almost similar to the ''Gudhamandapa'' but smaller as two courses of fillets are omitted. The ''padma'' is carved richly here with floral ornamentation. ;Wall moldings Above the ''Narathara'', there is a band with figures of dancers and gods known as ''rajasena''. The next is ''vedi'' which correspond to ''jangha'' of ''mandovara'' decorated with large panels of gods, goddesses, and floral designs. The next is cornice called ''asinot''. It followed by ''kakshasana'' which slopes outwards and forms the back-rests of the bench, ''asana'' which runs around the hall. There are erotic figures on it interrupted by rail-patterns. ;Ceiling and ''torana'' The roof was in shape of the stepped pyramid but it no longer exists. Inside, the walnut-shaped ceiling rises in tiers which has numerous floral girdles. It is 23 feet high. It is supported by pillars arranged in an octagon. These pillars have stilts that support the lintels. ''Torana'' or the decorated cusped arches arise from the lower brackets of the pillars and touch the lintels in middle. There are two types; semicircular and triangular. The semicircular arches have cusped arches with tips while triangular arches have a round apex and wavy sides. Both types have a broad band decorated with figures and tips which are now defaced and damaged. The lower brackets has ''Makara'' which gives the name of ''Makara-Torana'' while decoration gives name of ''chitra-torana''.

Pillars

The pillars of ''Sabhamandapa'' and ''Gudhamandapa'' are of two types; short and tall. The short pillars rest on the walls and support the roof. The tall pillars rise from the floor. ;Short pillars The shaft is square in shape to half of its height followed by the vase and then followed by an octagonal shaft. It is surmounted by a capital and a bracket. The square part has a floral design in a circle on each side of the face. The vase is decorated similarly on its corners. The octagonal part has four bands; the topmost has ''kirtimukha''. The capital has three annulets. ;Tall pillars They arise from square or octagonal base, ''kumbhi'', with triangular ornamentation on each face. Above it is ''kalasha''. It is followed by a deep band and the next is ''kevala'' decorated with ''chaitya''-windows. the next is ''kirtimukha''. The next is triangular pediment with ''chaitya''-windows. The next is the beginning of the shaft. It is first decorated with standing figures, mostly dancers, on all eight faces enclosed in ringed pilasters. The next band with scenes of men and beasts is separated from it by the round pillow-like band. It is followed by a still smaller band with sixteen standing human figures separated by small annulet below. The next is a band of leaves. Then the shaft becomes circular and had three or four bands having a row of male warriors, lozenges, circles and ''kirtimukha'' at last. The ''kirtimukha''s are separated by chain and bell ornamentation. It follows capital similar to small pillars crowned with ''makara'' brackets if eight stilted pillar and dwarfs in the rests. the eight stilted pillars have one more shaft and similar type of capital which is crowned with brackets of volutes and pendant leaves.

Iconography

The panels on the ''Gudhamandapa'' is decorated with Surya centrally which indicates that the temple is dedicated to Surya. These images wears peculiar West Asian (Persian) boots and belt. The other corners and niches are decorated with figures of

Shiva Shiva (; , ), also known as Mahadeva (; , , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh and Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the God in Hinduism, Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions w ...

and

Vishnu Vishnu (; , , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism, and the god of preservation ( ...

in various forms,

Brahma Brahma (, ) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the triple deity, trinity of Para Brahman, supreme divinity that includes Vishnu and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 212– ...

Nāga In various Asian religious traditions, the Nāgas () are a divine, or semi-divine, race of half-human, half-serpent beings that reside in the netherworld (Patala), and can occasionally take human or part-human form, or are so depicted in art. ...

and goddesses. The depicted scenes on small flat ceilings and lintels of ''sabhamandapa'' are from epics like

Ramayana The ''Ramayana'' (; ), also known as ''Valmiki Ramayana'', as traditionally attributed to Valmiki, is a smriti text (also described as a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic) from ancient India, one of the two important epics ...

''Kirti-torana''

There was a ''kirti-torana'', the triumphant arch, in front of ''sabhamandapa''. The pediment and ''

torana A ''torana'' (; '' awr-uh-nuh') is a free-standing ornamental or arched gateway for ceremonial purposes in Hindu architecture, Hindu, Buddhist and Jain architecture of the Indian subcontinent. Toranas can also be widely seen in Southeast Asi ...

'' no longer exists but two pillars remains. The moulding and decoration is similar to that of walls of ''sabhamandapa'' and pillars. There were two more ''kirti-torana'' on each side of the ''kunda'' of which only one exists without upper part.

''Kunda''

''Kunda'', a tank or reservoir is known as ''Ramakunda'' or ''Suryakunda''. The flight of steps through ''kirti-torana'' leads to the reservoir. It is rectangular. It measures 176 feet from north to south and 120 feet from east to west. It is paved with stones all around. There are four terraces and recessed steps to descend to reach the bottom of the tank. The main entrance lies on west. There are steps to reach from one terrace to another on right angle to terrace. These steps are rectangular or square except the first step of each flight of steps which is semicircular. Several miniature shrines and niches in front of terrace-wall have images of gods including many Vaishnavite deities and goddesses such as Shitala.

Modhera dance festival

The Tourism Corporation of Gujarat organises an annual three-day dance festival known as ''Uttarardha Mahotsav'' at the temple during the third week of January, following the festival of Uttarayan. The objective is to present classical dance forms in an atmosphere similar to that in which they were originally presented.

In popular culture

Letitia Elizabeth Landon Letitia Elizabeth Landon (14 August 1802 – 15 October 1838) was an English poet and novelist, better known by her initials L.E.L. Landon's writings are emblematic of the transition from Romanticism to Victorian literature. Her first major b ...

's poetical illustration ''Hindoo and Mahommedan Buildings'' refers to a coloured engraving of "a splendid sculptured Portico of a Temple dedicated to Mahadeo, at Moondheyra in Guzerat" and in it she meditates upon the vastness of this structure. The original painting is by David Roberts.

Gallery

File:SunTemple Modhera1.jpg, Back Side of SunTemple File:Sun Temple Modhera1.jpg, Side View File:Sun Temple, Modhera - sanctuary 01.jpg, A sanctuary on the Surya Kund. File:Massive Pillors.JPG, Massive pillars leading to the stepped tank outside the temple. File:Unique architecture in Modhera Sun Temple.jpg, Two pillars standing alone near the temple. File:Sculptures at Modhera temple entrance.jpg, This is one of many sculptures present at the temple. File:Sun Temple, Modhera - Guda Mandap 05.jpg, Reliefs on Gudhamandapa File:Sun Temple Modhera Plaque1.jpg, Information plaque in Hindi File:Sun Temple Modhera Plaque.jpg, Information plaque File:Uttarardh mahotsav modhera 2018 P 20180121 194527.jpg, Uttarardh Mahotsav at the Temple File:Indian Classical Dancer at Sun Temple, Modhera DSCN4459 1.jpg, Indian classical dancer at the temple File:Sun Temple - Modhera - Gujarat - 002.jpg,

Execution by elephant Execution by elephant, or ''Gunga Rao'', was a method of capital punishment in South Asia, South and Southeast Asia, particularly in Indian subcontinent, India, where Asian elephants were used to Crushing (execution), crush, dismember, or tortur ...

carved on a pillar

Notes and references

Notes

References

External links

{{Sun temples Hindu temples in Gujarat Surya temples History of Gujarat Buildings and structures completed in 1026 Religious buildings and structures completed in the 1020s 11th-century Hindu temples Cultural history of Gujarat Tourist attractions in Mehsana district Monuments of National Importance in Gujarat Māru-Gurjara architecture World Heritage Tentative List for India Hindu temples sacked in the Muslim period in the Indian subcontinent Modhera