The Stó꞉lō (), alternately written as Sto꞉lo, Stó꞉lô, or Stó꞉lõ, historically as Staulo, Stalo or Stahlo, and historically known and commonly referred to in ethnographic literature as the Fraser River Indians or Lower Fraser Salish, are a group of
First Nations
First nations are indigenous settlers or bands.
First Nations, first nations, or first peoples may also refer to:
Indigenous groups
*List of Indigenous peoples
*First Nations in Canada, Indigenous peoples of Canada who are neither Inuit nor Mé ...
peoples inhabiting the
Fraser Valley
The Fraser Valley is a geographical region in southwestern British Columbia, Canada and northwestern Washington State. It starts just west of Hope in a narrow valley encompassing the Fraser River and ends at the Pacific Ocean stretching from th ...
and lower Fraser Canyon of
British Columbia
British Columbia is the westernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Situated in the Pacific Northwest between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains, the province has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that ...
, Canada, part of the loose grouping of
Coast Salish
The Coast Salish peoples are a group of ethnically and linguistically related Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, living in the Canadian province of British Columbia and the U.S. states of Washington and Oregon. They speak on ...
nations. ''Stó꞉lō'' is the Halqemeylem word for "river", so the Stó꞉lō are ''the river people''. The first documented reference to these people as "the Stó꞉lō" occurs in Catholic Oblate missionary records from the 1880s. Prior to this, references were primarily to individual tribal groups such as
Matsqui, Ts’elxweyeqw, or Sumas.
Origins
The first traces of people living in the Fraser Valley date from 4,000 to 10,000 years ago. The Stó꞉lō called this area, their traditional territory, ''S'ólh Téméxw''. The early inhabitants of the area were highly mobile
hunter-gatherers
A hunter-gatherer or forager is a human living in a community, or according to an ancestrally derived lifestyle, in which most or all food is obtained by foraging, that is, by gathering food from local naturally occurring sources, especially w ...
. There is archeological evidence of a settlement in the lower
Fraser Canyon
The Fraser Canyon is a major landform of the Fraser River where it descends rapidly through narrow rock gorges in the Coast Mountains en route from the Interior Plateau of British Columbia to the Fraser Valley. Colloquially, the term "Fraser Ca ...
(called "the Milliken site" after historian August 'Gus' Milliken) and a seasonal encampment ("the Glenrose Cannery site") near the mouth of the Fraser River. Remains of this latter campsite show that in spring and early summer, the people came here to hunt land and sea
mammals
A mammal () is a vertebrate animal of the class Mammalia (). Mammals are characterised by the presence of milk-producing mammary glands for feeding their young, a broad neocortex region of the brain, fur or hair, and three middle e ...
, such as
deer
A deer (: deer) or true deer is a hoofed ruminant ungulate of the family Cervidae (informally the deer family). Cervidae is divided into subfamilies Cervinae (which includes, among others, muntjac, elk (wapiti), red deer, and fallow deer) ...
,
elk
The elk (: ''elk'' or ''elks''; ''Cervus canadensis'') or wapiti, is the second largest species within the deer family, Cervidae, and one of the largest terrestrial mammals in its native range of North America and Central and East Asia. ...
, and
seal
Seal may refer to any of the following:
Common uses
* Pinniped, a diverse group of semi-aquatic marine mammals, many of which are commonly called seals, particularly:
** Earless seal, also called "true seal"
** Fur seal
** Eared seal
* Seal ( ...
s and, to a lesser extent, to fish for
salmon
Salmon (; : salmon) are any of several list of commercially important fish species, commercially important species of euryhaline ray-finned fish from the genera ''Salmo'' and ''Oncorhynchus'' of the family (biology), family Salmonidae, native ...
,
stickleback
The sticklebacks are a family of ray-finned fishes, the Gasterosteidae which have a Holarctic distribution in fresh, brackish and marine waters. They were thought to be related to the pipefish and seahorses but are now thought to be more close ...
,
eulachon
The eulachon ( (''Thaleichthys pacificus''), also spelled oolichan , ooligan , hooligan ), or the candlefish, is a small anadromous species of smelt that spawns in some of the major river systems along the Pacific coast of North America from no ...
, and
sturgeon
Sturgeon (from Old English ultimately from Proto-Indo-European language, Proto-Indo-European *''str̥(Hx)yón''-) is the common name for the 27 species of fish belonging to the family Acipenseridae. The earliest sturgeon fossils date to the ...
and to gather
shellfish
Shellfish, in colloquial and fisheries usage, are exoskeleton-bearing Aquatic animal, aquatic invertebrates used as Human food, food, including various species of Mollusca, molluscs, crustaceans, and echinoderms. Although most kinds of shellfish ...
. Their lives depended on their success at harvesting the resources of the land and the rivers through fishing, foraging, and hunting.
Contemporary Stó꞉lō elders describe their connection to the land in the statement "we have always been here." They tell of their arrival in ''S'ólh Téméxw'' as either ''Tel Swayel'' ("sky-born" people) or as ''Tel Temexw'' ("earth-born" people) and through the subsequent
transformations of ancestral animals and fish such as the
beaver
Beavers (genus ''Castor'') are large, semiaquatic rodents of the Northern Hemisphere. There are two existing species: the North American beaver (''Castor canadensis'') and the Eurasian beaver (''C. fiber''). Beavers are the second-large ...
,
mountain goat
The mountain goat (''Oreamnos americanus''), also known as the Rocky Mountain goat, is a cloven-footed mammal that is endemic to the remote and rugged mountainous areas of western North America. A subalpine to truly alpine species, it is a s ...
, and sturgeon. ''Xexá:ls'' (transformers) fixed the world ("made it right") and the people and animals in it, creating the present landscape. As Carlson notes:
The Stó꞉lō walk simultaneously through both spiritual and physical realms of this landscape, connected to the Creator through the land itself, as transformed by Xexá:ls.
History
Prehistory and archaeology
Early period
There is a continuous record of occupation of ''S'ólh Téméxw'' by First Nations people dating from the early
Holocene
The Holocene () is the current geologic time scale, geological epoch, beginning approximately 11,700 years ago. It follows the Last Glacial Period, which concluded with the Holocene glacial retreat. The Holocene and the preceding Pleistocene to ...
period, 5,000 to 10,000 years ago. Two archaeological sites referred to in the ''Origins'' section are well documented. Additional archaeological evidence from the early period has been found throughout the region, including sites at
Stave Lake
Stave Lake is a lake and reservoir for the production of hydroelectricity in the Stave River system, located on the northern edge of Mission City, about east of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The main arm of the lake is about long from ...
,
Coquitlam Lake
Coquitlam Lake is a reservoir (water), reservoir located just north of Coquitlam, British Columbia. It is one of the three main water sources for Metro Vancouver, and part of the Metro Vancouver watersheds, Coquitlam watershed. It is also a part o ...
, and
Fort Langley
Fort Langley is a village community in Township of Langley, British Columbia, Canada. It has a population of approximately 3,400 people. It is the home of Fort Langley National Historic Site, a former fur trade post of the Hudson's Bay Company ...
.
Middle period
Many more sites exist that date from the middle Holocene period (c. 5,500–3,000 years ago). Tools found indicate considerable continuity with the early period. One striking feature of this period is the introduction of permanent house sites, showing evidence of
cultural transmission
Cultural learning is the way a group of people or animals within a society or culture tend to learn and pass on information. Learning styles can be greatly influenced by how a culture socializes with its children and young people. Cross-cultural ...
from a
nomadic
Nomads are communities without fixed habitation who regularly move to and from areas. Such groups include hunter-gatherers, pastoral nomads (owning livestock), tinkers and trader nomads. In the twentieth century, the population of nomadic pa ...
to a more sedentary lifestyle between 5,000 and 4,000 years ago. Characteristic of this period were decorative and sculpted stone items, an increasingly complex relationship with the environment, and a more stable and increasingly complex
culture
Culture ( ) is a concept that encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and Social norm, norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, Social norm, customs, capabilities, Attitude (psychology), attitudes ...
. The now extinct
Coast Salish woolly dog appeared for the first time during this period.
Among the oldest archaeological digs in Canada is
Xá:ytem, at Hatzic, just east of present-day
Mission
Mission (from Latin 'the act of sending out'), Missions or The Mission may refer to:
Geography Australia
*Mission River (Queensland)
Canada
*Mission, British Columbia, a district municipality
* Mission, Calgary, Alberta, a neighbourhood
* ...
. Initial work on a suburban housing project around a
transformer stone aroused the interests of Stó꞉lō archaeologist,
Gordon Mohs. The land eventually was transferred to Stó꞉lō governance for heritage purposes. The focus of the site is a large transformer stone which bears the name ''Xá:ytem.'' This has come to be used for the ancient village site that has been excavated in the surrounding field. There are two major eras found in the dig, one 3000BP and the other from 5000-9000BP . Both indicate posthole and timber-frame construction and advanced social and economic life. The site was eventually abandoned and covered by flooding and sediment during the ongoing evolution of the Fraser delta.
In the early 21st century, a group of structures known variously as the Fraser Valley Pyramids or
Scowlitz Mounds at Harrison Bay, near Chehalis, are under investigation by a joint task force of the
Scowlitz First Nation and archaeologists. Little is known about the mounds, which appear to be
burial mounds
A tumulus (: tumuli) is a mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves. Tumuli are also known as barrows, burial mounds, mounds, howes, or in Siberia and Central Asia as ''kurgans'', and may be found throughout much of the world. ...
and which contain timber structures to sustain the weight of the mound. Because they are distinct from any other structures anywhere else in the region, the people who made them may not have been forebears of the Stó꞉lō peoples.
Late period
This period extends from 3,000 years ago to first contact with
European people. New forms of ground
stone technology
Stone tools have been used throughout human history but are most closely associated with prehistoric cultures and in particular those of the Stone Age. Stone tools may be made of either ground stone or knapped stone, the latter fashioned by a c ...
, including slate
knives
A knife (: knives; from Old Norse 'knife, dirk') is a tool or weapon with a cutting edge or blade, usually attached to a handle or hilt. One of the earliest tools used by humanity, knives appeared at least 2.5 million years ago, as evidenced ...
, slate points, hand
mauls
A splitting maul also known as a ''block buster'', ''block splitter'', ''chop and maul'', ''sledge axe'', ''go-devil'' or ''hamaxe'' is a heavy, long-handled axe used for splitting a piece of wood along its grain. One side of its head is like a ...
, nephrite
chisels
A chisel is a hand tool with a characteristic Wedge, wedge-shaped cutting edge on the end of its blade. A chisel is useful for carving or cutting a hard material such as woodworking, wood, lapidary, stone, or metalworking, metal.
Using a chi ...
, and nephrite
adzes
An adze () or adz is an ancient and versatile cutting tool similar to an axe but with the cutting edge perpendicular to the handle rather than parallel. Adzes have been used since the Stone Age. They are used for smoothing or carving wood in ha ...
, are evidence of an increasingly specialized society evolving during this period. Social class distinctions were accompanied by changing house forms that indicated expanding households.
War
War is an armed conflict between the armed forces of states, or between governmental forces and armed groups that are organized under a certain command structure and have the capacity to sustain military operations, or between such organi ...
fare became increasingly widespread.
Contact with Europeans
Although Captains
José María Narváez
José María Narváez (1768 – August 4, 1840) was a Spanish naval officer, explorer, and navigator notable for his work in the Gulf Islands and Lower Mainland of present-day British Columbia. In 1791, as commander of the schooner '' Santa ...
of Spain and
George Vancouver
Captain (Royal Navy), Captain George Vancouver (; 22 June 1757 – 10 May 1798) was a Royal Navy officer and explorer best known for leading the Vancouver Expedition, which explored and charted North America's northwestern West Coast of the Uni ...
of England explored the
Georgia Strait
The Strait of Georgia () or the Georgia Strait is an arm of the Salish Sea between Vancouver Island and the extreme southwestern mainland coast of British Columbia, Canada, and the extreme northwestern mainland coast of Washington (state), Wash ...
in 1791 and 1792, respectively, they did not reach the
Fraser River
The Fraser River () is the longest river within British Columbia, Canada, rising at Fraser Pass near Blackrock Mountain (Canada), Blackrock Mountain in the Rocky Mountains and flowing for , into the Strait of Georgia just south of the City of V ...
or Stó꞉lō territory. The first contact between the Stó꞉lō and Europeans was indirect, through the transmission of
infectious disease
An infection is the invasion of tissue (biology), tissues by pathogens, their multiplication, and the reaction of host (biology), host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce. An infectious disease, also known as a transmis ...
via other Indigenous peoples.
Smallpox
There are two main theories for how the
smallpox
Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by Variola virus (often called Smallpox virus), which belongs to the genus '' Orthopoxvirus''. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (W ...
virus first reached the Stó꞉lō in late 1782. The first is that the disease came up from Mexico spreading with overland travelers, the second and more likely theory is that it was brought to the coast through trade routes with Europeans.
It is estimated that the epidemic killed two thirds of the Stó꞉lō population, approximately 61%, within six weeks.
During the epidemic traditional responses to illness may have made the outbreak worse.
One method was gathering around the sick person’s bed to sing and pray. This exposed more people to the virus. Other practices included cleansing sweats and cold morning baths which would have shocked the infected person’s body causing more harm.
Those who survived were affected with blindness and other permanent disabilities making hunting and other activities difficult. This caused many people to suffer from hunger along with the emotional damage from debilitation. Stó꞉lō culture is based on an oral tradition, and with the decimation of the community, large amounts of important cultural information were lost.
By the late 19th century, the Stó꞉lō's by then extended contact with Europeans enabled them to learn about and get vaccinated for protection against smallpox. The effects of the
1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic
The 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic was a smallpox outbreak that started in Victoria on Vancouver Island and spread among the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast and into the indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau, ki ...
on the Stó꞉lō were limited in comparison with many other indigenous people, because they had been inoculated with the
smallpox vaccine
The smallpox vaccine is used to prevent smallpox infection caused by the variola virus. It is the first vaccine to have been developed against a contagious disease. In 1796, British physician Edward Jenner demonstrated that an infection with th ...
.
Although deadly smallpox epidemics broke out at least once more (and possibly in 1824 and 1862), it was, however, only one of a number of serious diseases that would be brought to the area by European colonizers.
Measles
Measles (probably from Middle Dutch or Middle High German ''masel(e)'', meaning "blemish, blood blister") is a highly contagious, Vaccine-preventable diseases, vaccine-preventable infectious disease caused by Measles morbillivirus, measles v ...
,
mumps
MUMPS ("Massachusetts General Hospital Utility Multi-Programming System"), or M, is an imperative, high-level programming language with an integrated transaction processing key–value database. It was originally developed at Massachusetts Gen ...
,
tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB), also known colloquially as the "white death", or historically as consumption, is a contagious disease usually caused by ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' (MTB) bacteria. Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but it can al ...
,
influenza
Influenza, commonly known as the flu, is an infectious disease caused by influenza viruses. Symptoms range from mild to severe and often include fever, runny nose, sore throat, muscle pain, headache, coughing, and fatigue. These sympto ...
, and
venereal disease
A sexually transmitted infection (STI), also referred to as a sexually transmitted disease (STD) and the older term venereal disease (VD), is an infection that is spread by sexual activity, especially vaginal intercourse, anal sex, or ...
s also caused high fatalities among the Stó꞉lō population.
Simon Fraser and Fort Langley
Soon after the 1782 epidemic, the Stó꞉lō encountered Europeans face to face. The first European to explore the region from overland was
Simon Fraser, who travelled down the
river that bears his name in 1808. The
Hudson's Bay Company
The Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), originally the Governor and Company of Adventurers of England Trading Into Hudson’s Bay, is a Canadian holding company of department stores, and the oldest corporation in North America. It was the owner of the ...
established trading posts at
Fort Langley
Fort Langley is a village community in Township of Langley, British Columbia, Canada. It has a population of approximately 3,400 people. It is the home of Fort Langley National Historic Site, a former fur trade post of the Hudson's Bay Company ...
(in 1827) and
Fort Yale (1848). Their involvement in trading with the British brought great changes to the relationships of the Stó꞉lō with each other and with the land.
Although the HBC built the posts with the
fur trade
The fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal fur. Since the establishment of a world fur market in the early modern period, furs of boreal ecosystem, boreal, polar and cold temperate mammalian animals h ...
in mind, trade in
salmon
Salmon (; : salmon) are any of several list of commercially important fish species, commercially important species of euryhaline ray-finned fish from the genera ''Salmo'' and ''Oncorhynchus'' of the family (biology), family Salmonidae, native ...
soon took over as the primary item of exchange. Between 1830 and 1849, Fort Langley's purchases of salmon increased from 200 barrels to 2610 barrels.
The Kwantlen branch of the Stó꞉lō relocated their main village to the proximity of the fort, partly to maintain primacy in trade with the company and partly for protection from competitors. The fort repelled an attack by the
Euclataws of
Quadra Island
Quadra Island is a large island off the eastern coast of Vancouver Island, in British Columbia, Canada. It is part of the Discovery Islands, in the Strathcona Regional District.
Etymology
In 1903, the island was named after the Peruvian Spanis ...
, helping to bring an end to
slave
Slavery is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labour. Slavery typically involves compulsory work, with the slave's location of work and residence dictated by the party that holds them in bondage. Enslavemen ...
raids on the lower Fraser by northern tribes. But, slave raiding continued for several decades after the establishment of Ft. Langley.
Douglas and Trutch
After
Simon Fraser’s arrival in 1808 and the establishment of
Fort Langley
Fort Langley is a village community in Township of Langley, British Columbia, Canada. It has a population of approximately 3,400 people. It is the home of Fort Langley National Historic Site, a former fur trade post of the Hudson's Bay Company ...
in 1827 the gold rush began in 1858. With the discovery of gold came the influx of over 30,000 miners with goals of striking it rich. These miners created many problems as they encroached closely to Stó꞉lō communities, resources, and homes.
With the fierce competition over land many disputes arose concerning the ownership of land and the damage that was being caused by the miners. Governor
James Douglas recognized these issues and tried to separate the Stó꞉lō and miners by creating separate territories for each group to occupy.
This began the long history of land disputes between the Stó꞉lō and settlers. As the miners left in large numbers by 1860 the whiskey peddlers came in selling their "fire water" to the Stó꞉lō.
Shortly after this more permanent immigrants arrived and began to establish farms. Because no treaties had been signed between the Stó꞉lō and the government, the settlement of this land was not in accordance with the
Royal Proclamation of 1763
The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was issued by British King George III on 7 October 1763. It followed the Treaty of Paris (1763), which formally ended the Seven Years' War and transferred French territory in North America to Great Britain. The ...
that stated that all land acquisition from the Aboriginals had to be done legally through a treaty process.
No treaties were ever made in BC, and although Governor Douglas planned to create them, the gold rush and subsequent immigration rush hindered this. The main goal of his plan was the assimilation of the Stó꞉lō into European culture. He hoped to have Stó꞉lō pre-empt crown land for agricultural development and have them lease out parts of the reserves to non-Aboriginal farmers to aid in assimilation.
While waiting to be able to negotiate treaties, which were a very expensive process, he attempted to create large Indian reserves of at least 40 hectares per family.
Douglas also promised the Stó꞉lō fair compensation for all the land outside of the reserves being occupied by settlers. While setting up the reserves the Stó꞉lō were asked to help mark the territories themselves as it was recognized that only they would know what lands needed to be included such as berry patches, transformer sites, and burial grounds (although many spiritual sites were not revealed to ensure their secrecy). Sergeant William McColl was directed in 1864 by Douglas to create the reserves.
The surveyors outlined 15,760 hectors through present day Abbotsford, Chilliwack, and Mission.
This may seem like a large amount of land, but was small in comparison to the land available to settlers.
Soon after the survey was completed Douglas retired and McColl died.
Joseph Trutch
Sir Joseph William Trutch, (18 January 1826 – 2 March 1904) was an English-born Canadian civil engineer, land surveyor, and politician who served as first Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia.
Early life and career
Joseph was born i ...
, the Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works, was placed in charge of the reserves.
He felt that the Stó꞉lō did not need most of the land promised to them by Douglas and McColl. Trutch believed that if the land was not being used for agrarian purposes it was not required. He reduced the reserves by 91% in 1867, siding with the settlers who had begun to build homes and farms in the area. Trutch also took away many of the rights that Douglas had given to the Stó꞉lō.
They no longer were allowed to participate in government or able to pre-empt or purchase land outside of the reserves. In the years following these events the federal and provincial governments have paid very little attention to the problems that First Nations people have been experiencing in British Columbia. In 1990
British Columbia
British Columbia is the westernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Situated in the Pacific Northwest between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains, the province has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that ...
acknowledged that Aboriginal rights to land and resources needed to be extinguished by treaty as stated in the
1763 Royal Proclamation. They created the
BC Treaty Commission to help deal with these issues.
St. Mary's Residential School
St. Mary's Indian Residential School was the name of two Indian
residential schools in
Mission
Mission (from Latin 'the act of sending out'), Missions or The Mission may refer to:
Geography Australia
*Mission River (Queensland)
Canada
*Mission, British Columbia, a district municipality
* Mission, Calgary, Alberta, a neighbourhood
* ...
, British Columbia. It was first operated by the
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
of Canada and secondly by the Canadian federal government.
The school had approximately 2000 children in attendance with most of them Stó꞉lō.
Opened in 1863 as a school of boys housing 42 students in its first year
a girls section was added in 1868, but was split off and operated by the Sisters of St. Ann.
That school later moved in 1882 so that construction of the
Canadian Pacific Railway
The Canadian Pacific Railway () , also known simply as CPR or Canadian Pacific and formerly as CP Rail (1968–1996), is a Canadian Class I railway incorporated in 1881. The railway is owned by Canadian Pacific Kansas City, Canadian Pacific Ka ...
could take place.
The boys and girls lived separately. There was emphasis on the
catechism
A catechism (; from , "to teach orally") is a summary or exposition of Catholic theology, doctrine and serves as a learning introduction to the Sacraments traditionally used in catechesis, or Christian religious teaching of children and adult co ...
of the Roman Catholic Church and academics. Later, there was a shift to agriculture and industrial vocations including woodworking, attending mass, ironing and sewing.
Parents were allowed to visit and some camped around school.
Students were given permission to visit the city of Mission until 1948. On arrival at the school students were assigned lockers, beds and dormitory. They were also checked for lice and given two sets of clothes to be worn and marked.
Accounts of abuse at the school vary from person to person and at different eras.
Terry Glavin writes that in the 1800s, there was no corporal punishment at all, but in later periods strapping became routine, and for some students, conditions were nightmarish.
In 1952, 16 students graduated with full grade 12 diplomas.
In 1961, the students moved to a new government-run residential school of the same name on the eastern border of Mission, and the Roman Catholic School was closed.
In 1985, all buildings of the former schools were destroyed, making it the last residential school in British Columbia.
The grounds of the school are now part of Fraser River Heritage Park. New Bell Tower, built in 2000, also housed the 1875 original bell from Mission.
The Mission Indian Friendship Centre in 2001 provided funds to build a covered picnic shelter in the park.
The park is also home to the OMI cemetery where nun, students land and buildings of government–nun school were initially leased to the
Coqualeetza Training Centre after 1985. In 2005, the park was returned to the Stó꞉lō and given
Indian reserve
In Canada, an Indian reserve () or First Nations reserve () is defined by the '' Indian Act'' as a "tract of land, the legal title to which is vested in Her Majesty, that has been set apart by Her Majesty for the use and benefit of a band." ...
status. The land formally regained its Stó꞉lō name of
pekw’xe: yles (Peckquaylis) and it is used by 21 different first nations governments.
Culture
Language
The language traditionally spoken by the Stó꞉lō people is Halq'eméylem, the "Upriver dialect" of
Halkomelem
Halkomelem (; in the Upriver dialect, in the Island dialect, and in the Downriver dialect) is a language of various First Nations peoples of the British Columbia Coast. It is spoken in what is now British Columbia, ranging from southeastern ...
. Halq'eméylem is primarily spoken in
Harrison Lake
Harrison Lake is the largest lake in the southern Coast Mountains of Canada, being about 250 square kilometres (95 mi2) in area. It is about 60 km (37 mi) in length and at its widest almost 9 km (5.6 mi) across. Its sou ...
, lower Fraser Canyon, and the upper and central Fraser Valley. The dialect is included in the
Coast Salish language family. While there are 278 fluent speakers of the dialects of Halkomelem,
there are fewer than five fluent speakers of Halq'eméylem.
Of these, the speakers who have achieved fluency are of dotage. Because of this, several speakers have been lost in each successive year. In turn, the language is facing the threat of extinction.
In residential schools, such as St. Mary's Residential School in Mission, BC, students were prohibited from speaking their language. If students did speak their language instead of the desired English, they would often be punished physically or mentally to reinforce which language was to be spoken – or not spoken. With a lack of opportunity to speak eméylem in their environment and inability to go home in most cases, students in attendance at residential schools frequently lost their language.
In present day, the trend of individuals not being able to speak their language continues. English has still been taking precedence over the speaking of Halq'eméylem. With those who have fluency in the language passing away, and children not being raised in environments in which Halq'eméylem is learned and utilized as English has.
As the Stó꞉lō people, like other Aboriginal groups, consider their language to be an important aspect of their culture, there have been efforts made to revitalize Halq'eméylem. One of the central parties that has been involved in the preservation of the language is the Stó꞉lō Shxweli Halqeméylem Language Program.
In 1994, the program originated under the wing of the education department of the Stó꞉lō Nation's Community Economic Development division. It was established in the efforts to teach members of the community the language and be able to have these community members teach the language to others. In addition, the development of curriculum in Halq'eméylem was desired.
The initial program has led to the Stó꞉lō Shxweli Halqeméylem Language Program working with post-secondary institutions in British Columbia to allow course offerings to students regardless of background.
Among the post-secondary schools offering Halq'eméylem is the
University of the Fraser Valley
The University of the Fraser Valley (UFV), formerly known as University College of the Fraser Valley and Fraser Valley College, is a public university with campuses in Abbotsford, British Columbia, Abbotsford, Chilliwack, Mission, British Columbi ...
, Simon Fraser University, and the University of British Columbia.
An additional effort the Stó꞉lō Shxweli Halqeméylem Language Program has partaken in their efforts to revitalize and document the language is by using technology. The language staff involved in the program established an ongoing language archive on the mobile and website application First Voices. The number of singular words archived from the Halq'eméylem is 1745. Furthermore, 667 phrases have been archived on the website in Halq'eméylem.
Salmon

Coast Salish towns and villages were located along the waterways in
watershed
Watershed may refer to:
Hydrology
* Drainage divide, the line that separates neighbouring drainage basins
* Drainage basin, an area of land where surface water converges (North American usage)
Music
* Watershed Music Festival, an annual country ...
s, both for access to water for cooking and drinking, and for salmon fishing. Its importance in their culture was reflected in ceremonies dedicated to it. The various tribes, sometimes named by Europeans for the river they were located near, fished on the Fraser River and its tributaries, including the
Chilliwack
Chilliwack ( ) is a city of about 100,000 people and in the Canadian province of British Columbia. It is located about east of the City of Vancouver in the Fraser Valley. The enumerated population is 93,203 in the city and 113,767 in the gr ...
and the
Harrison. Important parts of the community life of the people were related to the life cycle of the salmon. Ceremonies such as the First Salmon ceremony, performed when the first fish was caught each year, reflected its importance in Stó꞉lō culture.
The First Salmon Ceremony was held when the first
salmon
Salmon (; : salmon) are any of several list of commercially important fish species, commercially important species of euryhaline ray-finned fish from the genera ''Salmo'' and ''Oncorhynchus'' of the family (biology), family Salmonidae, native ...
were brought back from the river. It was then shared with either the entire community or more privately in a family setting. After the salmon meat was eaten the bones of the fish were then returned to the river. This was to show respect to the salmon people. If the ceremony was not performed and the fish not shared it was said that the fisher would experience bad luck for the rest of the year and the salmon run may not be as strong.
Salmon was the preferred food of the Stó꞉lō and was seen as superior to other types of meat.
Meat and salmon were classified differently and salmon was said to give individuals energy while meat makes you feel heavy and lazy. In order to have salmon through the off seasons it was preserved through two different methods. In the summer salmon was wind dried with salt in the Fraser Canyon. In the fall salmon was smoked, this was traditionally done for a week or two but with modern refrigeration technology smoking is only done for a few days. Dried salmon was then either boiled or steamed before eating.
Salmon was not only used for food, it was also crucial for trading. This began when the
Hudson’s Bay Company
The Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), originally the Governor and Company of Adventurers of England Trading Into Hudson’s Bay, is a Canadian holding company of department stores, and the oldest corporation in North America. It was the owner of the ...
set up trading posts in Stó꞉lō territory. They originally wanted the Stó꞉lō to hunt beaver for them but quickly learned that the Stó꞉lō had little interest in beaver. The Hudson Bay Company then began to ask for salmon after seeing the impressive hauls that were being made. In August 1829 the Stó꞉lō traded Fort Langley 7000 Salmon.
Since European settlement in Stó꞉lō territory the salmon have been experiencing decreases in numbers. Major contributions to this include the building of the CPR, agriculture, and forestry. One of the newer major issues is the expanding
farmed salmon
The aquaculture of salmonids is the fish farming, farming and harvesting of salmonid fish under controlled conditions for both commercial and recreational purposes. Salmonids (particularly salmon and rainbow trout), along with carp and tilapia, a ...
industry. The farmed salmon are transferring lice and disease to the wild salmon.
This is further harming the already dwindling numbers.
Societal structure
Stó꞉lō society was organized into classes: the ''sí꞉yá꞉m'' (or upper classes), the ordinary people, and the slaves, who were usually captives taken from enemy tribes in raids or warfare.
A person's family status was important in determining their role within Stó꞉lō society, and within Longhouse ceremonies, though this has faded over time. Slaves may have been treated relatively well, but they were not permitted to eat with others at the Longhouse fire.
They were primarily responsible for daily tasks such as gathering nuts, fruits and other foods, or firewood. The use of slaves died out in the nineteenth century. As the practice was dying out there was a settlement of former slaves called
Freedom Village
Freedom Village (Halkomelem: Chi'ckem) was a historic village founded by the former slaves (Halkomelem: skw'iyeth) of the Stó:lō, Chawathil First Nation who lived near present-day Hope, British Columbia.
History
Starting in the late 18th cen ...
(
Halkomelem
Halkomelem (; in the Upriver dialect, in the Island dialect, and in the Downriver dialect) is a language of various First Nations peoples of the British Columbia Coast. It is spoken in what is now British Columbia, ranging from southeastern ...
: Chickim). In some bands, the memory of which families descend from slaves may persist.
The ''Síyá꞉m'' (leader) were the most influential members of each family. Expert hunters were referred to as ''Tewit'' and led during the hunting season. Leaders with influence over entire villages or tribal groups were sometimes known as the ''Yewal Síyá꞉m'' (high leaders).
Housing and shelter
The primary shelter for the Stó꞉lō people was in the form of a
longhouse
A longhouse or long house is a type of long, proportionately narrow, single-room building for communal dwelling. It has been built in various parts of the world including Asia, Europe, and North America.
Many were built from lumber, timber and ...
. Although some modern longhouses were built with
gable
A gable is the generally triangular portion of a wall between the edges of intersecting roof pitches. The shape of the gable and how it is detailed depends on the structural system used, which reflects climate, material availability, and aesth ...
d roofs, most Stó꞉lō longhouses were built with a single flat, but slanted roof, similar to the
Xá꞉ytem Longhouse.
Entire extended families would live in a longhouse, and the structure could be extended as the family expanded. Pit houses (or
Quiggly hole
A quiggly hole, also known as a pit-house or simply as a quiggly or kekuli, is the remains of an earth lodge built by the First Nations people of the Interior of British Columbia and the Columbia Plateau in the United States. The word ''quiggly' ...
houses) also were used during earlier generations.
Transportation
Although river and lake canoes were built within Stó꞉lō, larger ocean-going canoes were primarily acquired through trade with indigenous people of the coast and Vancouver island.
In the late nineteenth century, the emphasis on water transportation was replaced first by
horse and buggy
A buggy refers to a lightweight four-wheeled carriage drawn by a single horse, though occasionally by two. Amish buggies are still regularly in use on the roadways of America. The word "buggy" has become a generic term for "carriage" in Americ ...
, then by train and automobile.
Adolescence and adulthood
Traditionally, Stó꞉lō girls went through puberty rites at the time of their first
menstruation
Menstruation (also known as a period, among other colloquial terms) is the regular discharge of blood and Mucous membrane, mucosal tissue from the endometrium, inner lining of the uterus through the vagina. The menstrual cycle is characterized ...
. A pubescent girl would be brought to a pit lined with cedar boughs and told to remain there during daylight hours, leaving only to eat and sleep.
Women would bring her fir boughs and instruct her to pick out the needles one at a time, but this was the only work she would be allowed to do; other women would feed and wash the girl until her first menstrual period was over. This custom was practiced widely, at least until youth were sent to
residential schools.
Government
The Stó꞉lō have two elected tribal councils: the
Sto꞉lo Nation Chiefs Council and the
Stó꞉lō Tribal Council. Several bands belong to each council and some to both.
Six bands belong to neither council (see below for list). The
Chehalis Indian Band of the
Sts'ailes people
The Sts'ailes (), also known as Chehalis ( ) are an indigenous people from the Lower Mainland region of British Columbia, Canada.
Their band government is the Sts'ailes Nation, formerly known as the Chehalis First Nation or Chehalis Indian Band. ...
on the
Harrison River
The Harrison River is a short but large tributary of the Fraser River, entering it near the community of Chehalis, British Columbia, Canada. The Harrison drains Harrison Lake and is the ''de facto'' continuation of the Lillooet River, which fee ...
, while ethnically and linguistically similar, is among a number of First Nations governments in the region who have distanced themselves from Stó꞉lō collective governance. Others include the
Musqueam Indian Band
The Musqueam Nation (Hunquminum: ) is a First Nations in Canada, First Nation whose traditional territory encompasses the western half of what is now Greater Vancouver, in British Columbia, Canada. It is governed by a band council and is known ...
(''Xwməθkwəy̓əm/X'Muzk'I'Um'' people),
Tsleil-Waututh First Nation
The Tsleil-Waututh Nation (, ), formerly known as the Burrard Indian Band or Burrard Inlet Indian Band, is a First Nations band government in the Canadian province of British Columbia. The Tsleil-Waututh Nation ("TWN") are Coast Salish peoples w ...
(historic: Burrard
nletIndian Band, ''Səl̓ílwətaʔ/Selilwitulh'' people),
Tsawwassen First Nation
The Tsawwassen First Nation (, ) is a First Nations government whose lands are located in the Greater Vancouver area of the Lower Mainland of British Columbia, Canada, close to the South Arm of the Fraser River and just north of the internationa ...
(''Sc̓əwaθən Məsteyəx'' people), and
Semiahmoo First Nation
Semiahmoo First Nation ( ) is the band government of the Semiahmoo people, a Coast Salish subgroup. The band's main community and offices are located on the Semiahmoo Indian Reserve which is sandwiched between the boundary of White Rock, Br ...
(''Semyome'' people).
Members of the Stó꞉lō Nation Chiefs Council
*
Aitchelitz First Nation
The Aitchelitz First Nation (), also known as the Aitchelitz Band, is a First Nations band government of the Sto:lo people, located at Sardis, British Columbia, Canada (Chilliwack). It is a member of the Sto:lo Nation tribal council.
Reserves
...
(''Áthelets/Ăthelets'' people, part of the Ts'elxwéyeqw (Chilliwack) tribe.)
*
Leq'á:mel First Nation (former Nicomen Island Band, also known as Lakahahmen First Nation, ''Leq'ámel/Leq'á:mel'' people.)
*
Matsqui First Nation (''Máthxwi'' people.)
*
Popkum First Nation The Popkum First Nation or Popkum Band () is a band government of the Sto:lo people located in the Upper Fraser Valley region, at Popkum, northeast of Chilliwack, British Columbia, Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its Provi ...
(Popkum Band, ''Pópkw’em'' people, part of the Tiyt (Tait) tribe or Upper Stó:lō tribe.)
*
Skway First Nation (official: Shxwhá:y Village, pre-2004: Squay First Nation, ''Shxwhá:y Village'', part of the Ts'elxwéyeqw (Chilliwack) tribe.)
*
Skawahlook First Nation (''Sq'ewá:lxw/Sq'ewá:lx̲w'' people, part of the Tiyt (Tait) tribe or Upper Stó:lō tribe.)
*
Skowkale First Nation (Skowkale Band, historic: Skulkayn Band, ''Sq’ewqeyl/Sq'ewqéyl'' people, part of the Ts'elxwéyeqw (Chilliwack) tribe.)
*
Squiala First Nation (''Sxwoyehà:là/Sxwoyehálá'' people, part of the Ts'elxwéyeqw (Chilliwack) tribe.)
*
Sumas First Nation (''Pepa:thxetel'' people, better known as Semà:th / Smá:th (Sumas) tribe.)
*
Tzeachten First Nation (''Ch'íyáqtel'' people, part of the Ts'elxwéyeqw (Chilliwack) tribe.)
*
Yakweakwioose First Nation (Yakweakwioose Band, ''Yeqwyeqwí:ws'' people, part of the Ts'elxwéyeqw (Chilliwack) tribe.)
Members of the Stó꞉lō Tribal Council
*
Chawathil First Nation
The Chawathil First Nation or Chawathil Indian Band () is a band government of the Sto:lo people located in the Upper Fraser Valley region near Hope, British Columbia, Canada. They are a member government of the Stó:lō Tribal Council. They ...
(Chawathil Indian Band, ''Chowéthel'', pre-1988: Hope Indian Band, part of the Tiyt (Tait) tribe or Upper Stó:lō tribe.)
*
Cheam First Nation (Cheam Indian Band, ''Xwchí:yò:m/XwChiyo:m'' people, part of the Pelóxwlh Mestiyexw (Pilalt/Pil’alt) tribe.)
*
Kwantlen First Nation (pre-1994: Langley Indian Band, ''Qʼʷa:n̓ƛʼən̓/Qw'ó:ntl'an'' or ''Qw'ó:ltl'el'' people.)
*
Kwaw-kwaw-Apilt First Nation The Kwaw-kwaw-Apilt First Nation or Kwaw-kwaw-Apilt Indian Band () is a band government of the Sto:lo people located in the Upper Fraser Valley region near Chilliwack, British Columbia
British Columbia is the westernmost Provinces and territo ...
(Kwaw-kwaw-Apilt Indian Band, ''Qweqwe'opelhp'' people, part of the Pelóxwlh Mestiyexw (Pilalt/Pil’alt) tribe.)
*
Sq'éwlets First Nation (Formerly called ''Scowlitz First Nation'', ''Sq’éwlets'' or ''Sqwōwich'' people, Sq’éwlets/Sqwōwich (Scowlitz) tribe.)
*
Seabird Island First Nation (Seabird Island Band, ''Sq'éwqel/Sq’ewqeyl/Sq'ewqéyl'' people, part of the Tiyt (Tait) tribe or Upper Stó:lō tribe, today a composite band made up of residents from many different Coastal First Nations.)
*
Shxw'ow'hamel First Nation (Shxw'ow'hamel Band, historic: Ohamil/Ohaunil Band, ''Shxw’ōwhámél/Shxw'ōwhámel'' people, part of the Tiyt (Tait) tribe or Upper Stó:lō tribe.)
*
Soowahlie First Nation (''Th'ewá:lí'' people, part of the Ts'elxwéyeqw (Chilliwack) tribe.)
Stó꞉lō bands with no tribal council
*
Skwah First Nation (Skwah Band, ''Sqwa/Sqwehá'' people, part of the Pelóxwlh Mestiyexw (Pilalt/Pil’alt) tribe.)
*
New Westminster Indian Band (Qayqayt First Nation, ''Qiqéyt (Qəqəyt)'' village people, originally a Kwantlen/Qʼʷa:n̓ƛʼən̓ village, the main village Sχəyəməɬ of the Kwantlen/Qʼʷa:n̓ƛʼən̓ people was on the opposite riverside in New Westminster, also descendants of the ''T'sic̓əl̕əs'' village of the Musqueam/Xʷməθkʷəy̓əma people, composite band made up of residents from many different Coastal First Nations.)
*
Kwikwetlem First Nation (Coqutlam/Kwayhquitlum Indian Band, historic: Coquitlam Indian Band, pre-2000: Kwayhquitlam First Nation, ''Kʷikʷəƛ̓əm/Kwikwetl'em'' people, slaves/servants of the Kwantlen/Qʼʷa:n̓ƛʼən̓ people.)
*
Union Bar First Nation The Union Bar First Nation () is a band government of the Sto:lo people, located near Hope, British Columbia
Hope is a district municipality at the confluence of the Fraser River, Fraser and Coquihalla River, Coquihalla rivers in the province ...
(historic: Texas Lake/Tenas Lake Peoples, ''Iwówes/Aywawwis/Ewa-Woos'' people, part of the Tiyt (Tait) tribe or Upper Stó:lō tribe.)
*
Peters First Nation (Peters Band, pre-1952: Squawtits, ''Skwaw-Tits/Squatits'' people, part of the Tiyt (Tait) tribe or Upper Stó:lō tribe.)
*
Katzie First Nation (Katzie Nation, ''q̓ic̓əy̓/Q'éyts'iy'' village people.)
*
Sts'ailes Nation The Sts'ailes Nation (), formerly known as Chehalis First Nation ( ), is the band government of the Sts'Ailes people, whose territories lie between Deroche and Agassiz, British Columbia. The Sts'Alies are a Halkomelem-speaking people but are distin ...
(Chehalis First Nation or Stsailes First Nation, ''
Sts'ailes/Sts'a'íles people''.)
*
Yale First Nation (Yale Indian Band, had close family ties to
Lower Nlaka'pamux (Nłeʔkepmxc) bands and therefore speak also the "Puchil (Yale) dialect" of Nlaka'pamuctsin (Nłeʔkepmxcin), part of the Tiyt (Tait) tribe or Upper Stó:lō tribe.)
BC treaty negotiations
The Stó꞉lō Declaration included twenty-four First Nations when it was signed in 1977. Twenty-one of these nations entered the
BC Treaty Process
The British Columbia Treaty Process (BCTP) is a land claims negotiation process started in 1993 to resolve outstanding issues, including claims to un-extinguished indigenous rights, with British Columbia's First Nations.
Three treaties have ...
as the Sto꞉lo Nation Chiefs Council in August 1995. Four First Nations withdrew from the treaty process, leaving seventeen to reach Stage Four of the six-stage process.
In 2005, an internal reorganization of the nineteen Stó꞉lō First Nations divided them into two tribal councils. Eleven of these First Nations — Aitchelitz, Leq'a:mel, Matsqui, Popkum, Shxwhá:y Village, Skawahlook, Skowkale, Squiala, Sumas, Tzeachten, and Yakweakwioose — chose to remain in the Stó꞉lō Nation.
Eight others formed the Stó꞉lō Tribal Council. The eight members — Chawathil, Cheam, Kwantlen First Nation, Kwaw-kwaw-Apilt, Scowlitz, Seabird Island, Shxw'ow'hamel First Nation, and Soowahlie — are not participating in the treaty process.
[Province of British Columbia]
"Stolo Nation"
Ministry of Aboriginal Relations and Reconciliation. Retrieved on: October 7, 2007.
See also
*
Brent Galloway
*
Steven Point
*
Louie Sam
Citations
General and cited references
*
*
*
* Wells, Oliver N. (1987). ''The Chilliwacks and Their Neighbors''. Edited by Ralph Maud, Brent Galloway and Marie Wheeden. Vancouver: Talonbooks.
External links
Sto꞉lo Tribal Council websiteStó꞉lō Nation websiteMap of Sto꞉lo territoryas identified for the 1995 BC Treaty Commission
Xá:ytem / Hatzic Rock National Historic Site of CanadaXá:ytem Longhouse Interpretive CentreT'xwelatse Comes Home ''
Seattle Times
''The Seattle Times'' is an American daily newspaper based in Seattle, Washington. Founded in 1891, ''The Seattle Times'' has the largest circulation of any newspaper in the state of Washington and the Pacific Northwest region. The Seattle Time ...
'' article, January 28, 2007.
Ethnographic Overview of Stó:lo People and the Traditional use of the Hudson's Bay Company Brigade Trail Area by Brian Thom.
by Brian Thom
{{DEFAULTSORT:Stolo
First Nations in British Columbia