The garden strawberry (or simply strawberry; ''Fragaria × ananassa'') is a widely grown hybrid plant cultivated worldwide for its

fruit In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants (angiosperms) that is formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in particular have long propaga ...

. The genus ''

Fragaria ''Fragaria'' () is a genus of flowering plants in the rose family, Rosaceae, commonly known as strawberries for their edible fruits. There are more than 20 described species and many Hybrid plant, hybrids and cultivars. The most common strawberr ...

'', the strawberries, is in the rose family,

Rosaceae Rosaceae (), the rose family, is a family of flowering plants that includes 4,828 known species in 91 genera. The name is derived from the type genus '' Rosa''. The family includes herbs, shrubs, and trees. Most species are deciduous, but som ...

. The fruit is appreciated for its aroma, bright red colour, juicy texture, and sweetness. It is eaten either fresh or in prepared foods such as jam,

ice cream Ice cream is a frozen dessert typically made from milk or cream that has been flavoured with a sweetener, either sugar or an alternative, and a spice, such as Chocolate, cocoa or vanilla, or with fruit, such as strawberries or peaches. Food ...

, and

chocolate Chocolate is a food made from roasted and ground cocoa beans that can be a liquid, solid, or paste, either by itself or to flavoring, flavor other foods. Cocoa beans are the processed seeds of the cacao tree (''Theobroma cacao''); unprocesse ...

s. Artificial strawberry flavourings and aromas are widely used in commercial products. Botanically, the strawberry is not a

berry A berry is a small, pulpy, and often edible fruit. Typically, berries are juicy, rounded, brightly colored, sweet, sour or tart, and do not have a stone or pit although many pips or seeds may be present. Common examples of berries in the cul ...

, but an aggregate accessory fruit. Each apparent 'seed' on the outside of the strawberry is actually an

achene An achene (; ), also sometimes called akene and occasionally achenium or achenocarp, is a type of simple fruit, simple dry fruits, dry fruit produced by many species of flowering plants. Achenes are monocarpellate (formed from one carpel) and Dehi ...

, a botanical fruit with a seed inside it. The garden strawberry was first bred in

Brittany Brittany ( ) is a peninsula, historical country and cultural area in the north-west of modern France, covering the western part of what was known as Armorica in Roman Gaul. It became an Kingdom of Brittany, independent kingdom and then a Duch ...

, France, in the 1750s via a cross of '' F. virginiana'' from eastern North America and '' F. chiloensis'', which was brought from Chile by

Amédée-François Frézier Amédée-François Frézier (; 1682 – 26 October 1773) was a French military engineer, mathematician, spy, and explorer who is best remembered for bringing back five specimens of '' Fragaria chiloensis'', the beach strawberry, from an assignm ...

in 1714.

Cultivar A cultivar is a kind of Horticulture, cultivated plant that people have selected for desired phenotypic trait, traits and which retains those traits when Plant propagation, propagated. Methods used to propagate cultivars include division, root a ...

s of ''F.'' × ''ananassa'' have replaced the woodland strawberry '' F. vesca'' in commercial production. In 2023, world production of strawberries exceeded ten million tons, led by China with 40% of the total. Strawberries have appeared in literature and art from Roman times;

Virgil Publius Vergilius Maro (; 15 October 70 BC21 September 19 BC), usually called Virgil or Vergil ( ) in English, was an ancient Rome, ancient Roman poet of the Augustan literature (ancient Rome), Augustan period. He composed three of the most fa ...

wrote about the snake lurking beneath the strawberry, an image reinterpreted by later writers including

Shakespeare William Shakespeare ( 23 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's natio ...

. Strawberries appear in Italian, Flemish, and German paintings, including

Hieronymus Bosch Hieronymus Bosch (; ; born Jheronimus van Aken ; – 9 August 1516) was a Dutch people, Dutch painter from Duchy of Brabant, Brabant. He is one of the most notable representatives of the Early Netherlandish painting school. His work, gene ...

's ''

The Garden of Earthly Delights ''The Garden of Earthly Delights'' () is the modern title given to a triptych oil painting on oak panels painted by the Early Netherlandish master Hieronymus Bosch, between 1490 and 1510, when Bosch was between 40 and 60 years old. Bos ...

''. It has been understood to symbolise the ephemerality of earthly joys or the benefit that blessed souls get from religion, or to allegorise death and resurrection. By the late 20th century, its meaning had shifted: it symbolised female sexuality.

Evolution

History and taxonomy

In Europe, until the 17th century cultivated plants were obtained by transplanting strawberries from the forests; the plants were propagated asexually by pegging down the runners, allowing them to root, and then separating the new plants. '' F. virginiana'', the Virginia strawberry, was brought to Europe from eastern North America; '' F. chiloensis'', the Chilean strawberry, was brought from Chile by

in 1714. At first introduction to Europe, the Chilean strawberry plants grew vigorously, but produced no fruit. French gardeners in

in the 1750s noticed that the Chilean plants bore only female flowers. They planted the wild woodland strawberry ''F. vesca'' among the Chilean plants to provide pollen; the Chilean strawberry plants then bore abundant fruits. In 1759, Philip Miller recorded the 'pine strawberry' (''F. ananassa'') in Chelsea, England. In the gardens of the

Palace of Versailles The Palace of Versailles ( ; ) is a former royal residence commissioned by King Louis XIV located in Versailles, Yvelines, Versailles, about west of Paris, in the Yvelines, Yvelines Department of Île-de-France, Île-de-France region in Franc ...

, France,

Antoine Nicolas Duchesne Antoine Nicolas Duchesne (born 7 October 1747 Versailles (city), Versailles; died 18 February 1827 Paris) was a French botanist known for his keen observation of variation within species, and for demonstrating that species are not immutable, becaus ...

found in 1766 that ''F. ananassa'' was a hybrid of the recently arrived ''F. chiloensis'' and ''F. virginiana''. In 1806, Michael Keens of

Isleworth Isleworth ( ) is a suburban town in the London Borough of Hounslow, West London, England. It lies immediately east of Hounslow and west of the River Thames and its tributary the River Crane, London, River Crane. Isleworth's original area of ...

, England selected the Keens Imperial cultivar from many hybrids, winning the

Royal Horticultural Society The Royal Horticultural Society (RHS), founded in 1804 as the Horticultural Society of London, is the UK's leading gardening charity. The RHS promotes horticulture through its five gardens at Wisley (Surrey), Hyde Hall (Essex), Harlow Carr ...

's Silver Cup. Both the names 'pine' and 'ananassa' meant "pineapple", for the fruit's flavour. Modern strawberries and both parent species are

octoploid Polyploidy is a condition in which the cells of an organism have more than two paired sets of ( homologous) chromosomes. Most species whose cells have nuclei (eukaryotes) are diploid, meaning they have two complete sets of chromosomes, one fro ...

(8N, meaning they have 8 sets of 7

chromosome A chromosome is a package of DNA containing part or all of the genetic material of an organism. In most chromosomes, the very long thin DNA fibers are coated with nucleosome-forming packaging proteins; in eukaryotic cells, the most import ...

s). The

genome A genome is all the genetic information of an organism. It consists of nucleotide sequences of DNA (or RNA in RNA viruses). The nuclear genome includes protein-coding genes and non-coding genes, other functional regions of the genome such as ...

sequence of the garden strawberry was published in 2019. Hybridisation and polyploidy in strawberries

Further breeding in the following centuries produced varieties with a longer cropping season and more fruit. During the

Green Revolution The Green Revolution, or the Third Agricultural Revolution, was a period during which technology transfer initiatives resulted in a significant increase in crop yields. These changes in agriculture initially emerged in Developed country , devel ...

of the 1950s,

agronomists An agriculturist, agriculturalist, agrologist, or agronomist (abbreviated as agr.) is a professional in the science, practice, and management of agriculture and agribusiness. It is a regulated profession in Canada, India, the Philippines, the Uni ...

used selective breeding to expand

phenotypic In genetics, the phenotype () is the set of observable characteristics or traits of an organism. The term covers the organism's morphology (physical form and structure), its developmental processes, its biochemical and physiological propert ...

diversity of the garden strawberry. Adoption of perpetual flowering hybrids not sensitive to changes in

photoperiod Photoperiod is the change of day length around the seasons. The rotation of the earth around its axis produces 24 hour changes in light (day) and dark (night) cycles on earth. The length of the light and dark in each phase varies across the season ...

gave higher yields and enabled production in California to expand. File:Fragaria vesca LC0389.jpg, ''

Fragaria vesca ''Fragaria vesca'', commonly called the wild strawberry, woodland strawberry, Alpine strawberry, Carpathian strawberry or European strawberry, is a Perennial plant, perennial herbaceous plant in the Rosaceae, rose family that grows naturally thro ...

'', a wild woodland strawberry, was cultivated until the 17th century. File:Strawberry gariguette DSC03063.JPG,

discovered that the cultivated strawberry ('Gariguette' pictured) was a hybrid of '' F. chiloensis'' and '' F. virginiana''.

Phylogeny

The

phylogeny A phylogenetic tree or phylogeny is a graphical representation which shows the evolutionary history between a set of species or Taxon, taxa during a specific time.Felsenstein J. (2004). ''Inferring Phylogenies'' Sinauer Associates: Sunderland, M ...

of the cultivated strawberry within the genus ''Fragaria'' of the

family was determined by chloroplast genomics in 2021. The

polyploidy Polyploidy is a condition in which the cells of an organism have more than two paired sets of ( homologous) chromosomes. Most species whose cells have nuclei (eukaryotes) are diploid, meaning they have two complete sets of chromosomes, one fro ...

(number of sets of

s) is shown as "2N" etc. by each species.

Description

In culinary terms, a strawberry is an edible fruit. From a botanical point of view, it is not a

but an aggregate accessory fruit, because the fleshy part is derived from the receptacle. Each apparent seed on the outside of the strawberry is actually an

, a botanical fruit with a seed inside it. File:Two strawberry leaves sunny.jpg, Leaves File:Flower of Fragaria × ananassa.JPG, Flower File:Garden strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) close-up.jpg,

Achene An achene (; ), also sometimes called akene and occasionally achenium or achenocarp, is a type of simple fruit, simple dry fruits, dry fruit produced by many species of flowering plants. Achenes are monocarpellate (formed from one carpel) and Dehi ...

s (botanical fruits) File:Strawberry growth (Video).webm, Growth (video)

Composition

Nutrition

Raw strawberries are 91% water, 8%

carbohydrate A carbohydrate () is a biomolecule composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms. The typical hydrogen-to-oxygen atomic ratio is 2:1, analogous to that of water, and is represented by the empirical formula (where ''m'' and ''n'' ...

s, 1%

protein Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residue (biochemistry), residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including Enzyme catalysis, catalysing metab ...

, and contain negligible fat (table). A reference amount of supplies 33

kilocalorie The calorie is a unit of energy that originated from the caloric theory of heat. The large calorie, food calorie, dietary calorie, kilocalorie, or kilogram calorie is defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one liter of w ...

s, is a rich source of

vitamin C Vitamin C (also known as ascorbic acid and ascorbate) is a water-soluble vitamin found in citrus and other fruits, berries and vegetables. It is also a generic prescription medication and in some countries is sold as a non-prescription di ...

(65% of the

Daily Value In the U.S. and Canada, the Reference Daily Intake (RDI) is used in nutrition labeling on food and dietary supplement products to indicate the daily intake level of a nutrient that is considered to be sufficient to meet the requirements of 97� ...

, DV), and a good source of

manganese Manganese is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Mn and atomic number 25. It is a hard, brittle, silvery metal, often found in minerals in combination with iron. Manganese was first isolated in the 1770s. It is a transition m ...

(17% DV), with no other

micronutrient Micronutrients are essential chemicals required by organisms in small quantities to perform various biogeochemical processes and regulate physiological functions of cells and organs. By enabling these processes, micronutrients support the heal ...

s in significant content (table). Strawberries contain a modest amount of essential

unsaturated fatty acid In chemistry, in particular in biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid with an aliphatic chain, which is either saturated or unsaturated. Most naturally occurring fatty acids have an unbranched chain of an even number of carbon atoms, ...

s in the

(seed) oil.

Phytochemicals

Garden strawberries contain diverse

phytochemical Phytochemicals are naturally-occurring chemicals present in or extracted from plants. Some phytochemicals are nutrients for the plant, while others are metabolites produced to enhance plant survivability and reproduction. The fields of ext ...

s, including the dimeric

ellagitannin image:Castalagin.svg, 130px, Castalagin is a representative ellagitannin, characterized by coupled gallic acid substituents The ellagitannins are a diverse class of hydrolyzable tannins, a type of polyphenol formed primarily from the oxidative link ...

agrimoniin, which is an isomer of sanguiin H-6. Other polyphenols present include

flavonoid Flavonoids (or bioflavonoids; from the Latin word ''flavus'', meaning yellow, their color in nature) are a class of polyphenolic secondary metabolites found in plants, and thus commonly consumed in the diets of humans. Chemically, flavonoids ...

s, such as

anthocyanin Anthocyanins (), also called anthocyans, are solubility, water-soluble vacuole, vacuolar pigments that, depending on their pH, may appear red, purple, blue, or black. In 1835, the German pharmacist Ludwig Clamor Marquart named a chemical compou ...

flavanol Flavan-3-ols (sometimes referred to as flavanols) are a subgroup of flavonoids. They are derivatives of flavans that possess a 2-phenyl-3,4-dihydro-2''H''-chromen-3-ol skeleton. Flavan-3-ols are structurally diverse and include a range of comp ...

flavonol Flavonols are a class of flavonoids that have the 3-hydroxyflavone backbone (IUPAC name: 3-hydroxy-2-phenylchromen-4-one). Their diversity stems from the different positions of the phenolic –OH groups. They are distinct from flavanols (with ...

s and

phenolic acid Phenolic acids or phenolcarboxylic acids ? are phenolic compounds and types of aromatic acid compounds. Included in that class are substances containing a phenolic ring and an organic carboxylic acid function (C6-C1 skeleton). Two important nat ...

s, such as

hydroxybenzoic acid Hydroxybenzoic acid may refer to several related chemical compounds: * 2-Hydroxybenzoic acid (salicylic acid, ''o''-hydroxybenzoic acid) * 3-Hydroxybenzoic acid (''m''-hydroxybenzoic acid) * 4-Hydroxybenzoic acid (''p''-hydroxybenzoic acid) See ...

and

hydroxycinnamic acid Hydroxycinnamic acids (hydroxycinnamates) are a class of aromatic acids or phenylpropanoids having a C6–C3 skeleton. These compounds are hydroxy derivatives of cinnamic acid. In the category of List of phytochemicals in food, phytochemicals tha ...

. Although achenes comprise only about 1% of the total fresh weight of a strawberry, they contribute 11% of all polyphenols in the whole fruit; achene phytochemicals include

ellagic acid Ellagic acid is a polyphenol found in numerous fruits and vegetables. It is the dilactone of hexahydroxydiphenic acid. Name The name comes from the French term ''acide ellagique'', from the word ''galle'' spelled backward because it can be o ...

, ellagic acid

glycoside In chemistry, a glycoside is a molecule in which a sugar is bound to another functional group via a glycosidic bond. Glycosides play numerous important roles in living organisms. Many plants store chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. ...

s, and ellagitannins. Pelargonidin-3-glucoside is the major

pigment in strawberries, giving them their red colour, with

cyanidin-3-glucoside Chrysanthemin is an anthocyanin. It is the 3-glucoside of cyanidin (kuromanin). Natural occurrences Chrysanthemin can be found in the Roselle (plant), roselle plant (''Hibiscus sabdariffa'', Malvaceae), different Japanese angiosperms, ''Rhapont ...

in smaller amounts. Strawberries also contain purple minor pigments, such as dimeric anthocyanins.

Flavour and fragrance

Sweetness, fragrance and complex flavour are important attributes of strawberries. In

plant breeding Plant breeding is the science of changing the traits of plants in order to produce desired characteristics. It is used to improve the quality of plant products for use by humans and animals. The goals of plant breeding are to produce crop varie ...

and farming, emphasis is placed on sugars, acids, and volatile compounds, which improve the taste and fragrance of the ripe fruit.

Ester In chemistry, an ester is a compound derived from an acid (either organic or inorganic) in which the hydrogen atom (H) of at least one acidic hydroxyl group () of that acid is replaced by an organyl group (R). These compounds contain a distin ...

terpene Terpenes () are a class of natural products consisting of compounds with the formula (C5H8)n for n ≥ 2. Terpenes are major biosynthetic building blocks. Comprising more than 30,000 compounds, these unsaturated hydrocarbons are produced predomi ...

s, and

furan Furan is a Heterocyclic compound, heterocyclic organic compound, consisting of a five-membered aromatic Ring (chemistry), ring with four carbon Atom, atoms and one oxygen atom. Chemical compounds containing such rings are also referred to as f ...

s are the chemical compounds having the strongest relationships to strawberry flavour, sweetness and fragrance, with a total of 31 out of some 360 volatile compounds significantly correlated to desirable flavour and fragrance. In breeding strawberries for the commercial market in the United States, the volatile compounds methyl anthranilate and gamma-decalactone, prominent in aromatic wild strawberries, are especially desired for their "sweet and fruity" aroma characteristics. As strawberry flavour and

fragrance An aroma compound, also known as an odorant, aroma, fragrance, flavoring or flavor, is a chemical compound that has a smell or odor. For an individual chemical or class of chemical compounds to impart a smell or fragrance, it must be sufficien ...

appeal to consumers, they are used widely in manufacturing, including foods, beverages, perfumes and cosmetics.

Allergy

Some people experience an anaphylactoid reaction to eating strawberries. The most common form of this reaction is

oral allergy syndrome Oral allergy syndrome (OAS) or pollen-food allergy syndrome (PFAS) is a type of allergy classified by a cluster of allergic reactions in the mouth and throat in response to eating certain (usually fresh) fruits, nuts, and vegetables. It typically ...

, but symptoms may also mimic

hay fever Allergic rhinitis, of which the seasonal type is called hay fever, is a type of rhinitis, inflammation in the nose that occurs when the immune system overreacts to allergens in the air. It is classified as a Allergy, type I hypersensitivity re ...

or include

dermatitis Dermatitis is a term used for different types of skin inflammation, typically characterized by itchiness, redness and a rash. In cases of short duration, there may be small blisters, while in long-term cases the skin may become thickened ...

hives Hives, also known as urticaria, is a kind of skin rash with red or flesh-colored, raised, itchy bumps. Hives may burn or sting. The patches of rash may appear on different body parts, with variable duration from minutes to days, and typically ...

, and, in severe cases, may cause breathing problems.

Proteomic Proteomics is the large-scale study of proteins. Proteins are vital macromolecules of all living organisms, with many functions such as the formation of structural fibers of muscle tissue, enzymatic digestion of food, or synthesis and replicatio ...

studies indicate that the allergen may be tied to a protein for the red anthocyanin biosynthesis expressed in strawberry ripening, named Fra a1 (Fragaria allergen1). White-fruited strawberry

cultivar A cultivar is a kind of Horticulture, cultivated plant that people have selected for desired phenotypic trait, traits and which retains those traits when Plant propagation, propagated. Methods used to propagate cultivars include division, root a ...

s, lacking Fra a1, may be an option for people allergic to strawberries. They ripen but remain pale, appearing like immature berries. A virtually allergen-free cultivar named 'Sofar' is available.

Varieties

Strawberries are often grouped according to their flowering habit. Traditionally in the Northern Hemisphere, this has consisted of a division between "June-bearing" strawberries, which bear their fruit in the early summer and "everbearing" strawberries, which often bear several crops of fruit throughout the season. One plant throughout a season may produce 50 to 60 times or roughly once every three days. Strawberries occur in three basic flowering habits: short-day, long-day, and day-neutral. These describe the day-length sensitivity of the plant and the type of

that induces flower formation. Day-neutral cultivars produce flowers regardless of the photoperiod. Strawberry cultivars vary widely in size, colour, flavour, shape, degree of fertility, season of ripening, liability to disease and constitution of plant.

Cultivation

Production

In 2023, world production of strawberries was 10.5million

tonne The tonne ( or ; symbol: t) is a unit of mass equal to 1,000 kilograms. It is a non-SI unit accepted for use with SI. It is also referred to as a metric ton in the United States to distinguish it from the non-metric units of the s ...

s, led by China with 40% of the total; the United States was the main secondary producer. For commercial production, plants can be propagated from bare root plants or plugs. One method of cultivation uses annual

plasticulture Plasticulture is the practice of using plastic materials in agriculture, agricultural applications. The plastic materials themselves are often and broadly referred to as "ag plastics". Plasticulture ag plastics include soil fumigation film, irri ...

; another is a perennial system of matted rows or mounds which has been used in cold growing regions for many years. In some areas, greenhouses are used; in principle they could provide strawberries during the off season for field crops. In the plasticulture system, raised beds are covered with plastic to prevent weed growth and erosion. Plants are planted through holes punched in this covering. Irrigation tubing can be run underneath if necessary. Another method uses a compost sock. Plants grown in compost socks have been shown to produce significantly more

fructose Fructose (), or fruit sugar, is a Ketose, ketonic monosaccharide, simple sugar found in many plants, where it is often bonded to glucose to form the disaccharide sucrose. It is one of the three dietary monosaccharides, along with glucose and gal ...

glucose Glucose is a sugar with the Chemical formula#Molecular formula, molecular formula , which is often abbreviated as Glc. It is overall the most abundant monosaccharide, a subcategory of carbohydrates. It is mainly made by plants and most algae d ...

sucrose Sucrose, a disaccharide, is a sugar composed of glucose and fructose subunits. It is produced naturally in plants and is the main constituent of white sugar. It has the molecular formula . For human consumption, sucrose is extracted and refined ...

malic acid Malic acid is an organic compound with the molecular formula . It is a dicarboxylic acid that is made by all living organisms, contributes to the sour taste of fruits, and is used as a food additive. Malic acid has two stereoisomeric forms ( ...

, and

citric acid Citric acid is an organic compound with the formula . It is a Transparency and translucency, colorless Weak acid, weak organic acid. It occurs naturally in Citrus, citrus fruits. In biochemistry, it is an intermediate in the citric acid cycle, ...

than fruit produced in the black

plastic mulch Plastics are a wide range of synthetic or semisynthetic materials composed primarily of polymers. Their defining characteristic, plasticity, allows them to be molded, extruded, or pressed into a diverse range of solid forms. This adaptabi ...

or matted row systems. Similar results in an earlier study conducted by

United States Department of Agriculture The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is an executive department of the United States federal government that aims to meet the needs of commercial farming and livestock food production, promotes agricultural trade and producti ...

confirms how compost plays a role in the bioactive qualities of two strawberry cultivars. Strawberries may be propagated by seed. Strawberries can be grown indoors in pots. Strawberries will not grow indoors in winter though an experiment using a combination of blue and red

LED lamp An LED lamp or LED light is an electric light that produces light using light-emitting diodes (LEDs). LED lamps are significantly more energy-efficient than equivalent incandescent lamps and fluorescent lamps. The most efficient commercial ...

s shows that this could be achieved in principle. In

Florida Florida ( ; ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It borders the Gulf of Mexico to the west, Alabama to the northwest, Georgia (U.S. state), Georgia to the north, the Atlantic ...

, winter is the natural growing season and harvesting begins in mid-November. File:Dülmen, Kirchspiel, Erdbeerfeld -- 2015 -- 6492-6.jpg, Strawberry field in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany File:Plasticulture.jpg, alt=A large strawberry field with plastic covering the earth around the strawberry plants., A field using the plasticulture method

Manuring and harvesting

Nitrogen fertiliser is often needed at the beginning of every planting year. There are normally adequate levels of phosphorus and potash when fields have been fertilised for other crops in preceding years. To provide more organic matter, a cover crop of wheat or rye can be planted in the year before planting the strawberries. Strawberries prefer a somewhat acidic pH from 5.5 to 6.5, so lime is usually not required. To achieve top quality, berries are harvested at least every other day. The berries are picked with the caps and half the stem still attached. Strawberries need to remain on the plant until fully ripe, because they do not continue to ripen after being picked. The harvesting and cleaning process has not changed substantially over time. As they are delicate, strawberries are still often harvested by hand and packed in the field.

Domestic cultivation

Strawberries are popular in home gardens, and numerous

s have been selected for consumption and for exhibition purposes. The following cultivars have gained the

Award of Garden Merit The Award of Garden Merit (AGM) is a long-established award for plants by the British Royal Horticultural Society (RHS). It is based on assessment of the plants' performance under UK growing conditions. It includes the full range of cultivated p ...

: * 'Cambridge Favourite' * 'Hapil' * 'Honeoye' ( ) * 'Pegasus' * 'Rhapsody' * 'Symphony'

Pests and diseases

Over 200 species of pest arthropods attack strawberries. These include

moth Moths are a group of insects that includes all members of the order Lepidoptera that are not Butterfly, butterflies. They were previously classified as suborder Heterocera, but the group is Paraphyly, paraphyletic with respect to butterflies (s ...

s, fruit flies, chafers, strawberry root weevils, strawberry thrips, strawberry sap beetles, strawberry crown moth,

mite Mites are small arachnids (eight-legged arthropods) of two large orders, the Acariformes and the Parasitiformes, which were historically grouped together in the subclass Acari. However, most recent genetic analyses do not recover the two as eac ...

s, and

aphid Aphids are small sap-sucking insects in the Taxonomic rank, family Aphididae. Common names include greenfly and blackfly, although individuals within a species can vary widely in color. The group includes the fluffy white Eriosomatinae, woolly ...

s. Non-arthropod pests include slugs. Some are vectors of plant diseases; for instance, the strawberry aphid, '' Chaetosiphon fragaefolii'', can carry the strawberry mild yellow-edge virus. Strawberry plants are subject to many diseases, especially when subjected to stress. The leaves may be infected by

powdery mildew Powdery mildew is a fungus, fungal disease that affects a wide range of plants. Powdery mildew diseases are caused by many different species of Ascomycota, ascomycete fungi in the order Erysiphales. Powdery mildew is one of the easier plant disea ...

leaf spot A leaf spot is a limited, discoloured, diseased area of a leaf that is caused by fungal, bacterial or viral plant diseases, or by injuries from nematodes, insects, environmental factors, toxicity or herbicides. These discoloured spots or lesions ...

(caused by the fungus ''Sphaerella fragariae''), leaf blight (caused by the fungus '' Phomopsis obscurans''), and by a variety of

slime mold Slime mold or slime mould is an informal name given to a polyphyletic assemblage of unrelated eukaryotic organisms in the Stramenopiles, Rhizaria, Discoba, Amoebozoa and Holomycota clades. Most are near-microscopic; those in the Myxogastria ...

s. The crown and roots may fall victim to red stele,

verticillium ''Verticillium'' is a genus of fungi in the division Ascomycota, and are an anamorphic form of the family Plectosphaerellaceae. The genus used to include diverse groups comprising saprobes and parasites of higher plants, insects, nematodes, mol ...

wilt, black root rot, and

nematode The nematodes ( or ; ; ), roundworms or eelworms constitute the phylum Nematoda. Species in the phylum inhabit a broad range of environments. Most species are free-living, feeding on microorganisms, but many are parasitic. Parasitic worms (h ...

s. The fruits are subject to damage from gray mold (''

Botrytis cinerea ''Botrytis cinerea'' is a necrotrophic fungus that affects many plant species, although its most notable hosts may be wine grapes. In viticulture, it is commonly known as "botrytis bunch rot"; in horticulture, it is usually called "grey mould" ...

''),

rhizopus ''Rhizopus'' is a genus of common saprophytic fungi on plants and specialized parasites on animals. They are found in a wide variety of organic substances, including "mature fruits and vegetables", jellies, syrups, leather, bread, peanuts, and t ...

rot, and leather rot.

Disease resistance and protection

The , '' AtNPR1'', confers ''A. thaliana''s broad-spectrum resistance when transexpressed in ''F. ananassa''. This includes resistance to anthracnose, powdery mildew, and angular leaf spot. A 1997 study found that many wound volatiles were effective against gray mold (''B. cinerea''). Both

Tribute A tribute (; from Latin ''tributum'', "contribution") is wealth, often in kind, that a party gives to another as a sign of submission, allegiance or respect. Various ancient states exacted tribute from the rulers of lands which the state con ...

and Chandler varieties benefited from the treatments, although the effects vary widely with substance and variety. Strawberry plants

metabolise Metabolism (, from ''metabolē'', "change") is the set of life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms. The three main functions of metabolism are: the conversion of the energy in food to energy available to run cellular processes; the co ...

these volatiles, more rapidly than do either

blackberry BlackBerry is a discontinued brand of handheld devices and related mobile services, originally developed and maintained by the Canadian company Research In Motion (RIM, later known as BlackBerry Limited) until 2016. The first BlackBerry device ...

grape A grape is a fruit, botanically a berry, of the deciduous woody vines of the flowering plant genus ''Vitis''. Grapes are a non- climacteric type of fruit, generally occurring in clusters. The cultivation of grapes began approximately 8,0 ...

Culinary use

Strawberries were eaten fresh with cream in the time of

Thomas Wolsey Thomas Wolsey ( ; – 29 November 1530) was an English statesman and Catholic cardinal (catholic), cardinal. When Henry VIII became King of England in 1509, Wolsey became the king's Lord High Almoner, almoner. Wolsey's affairs prospered and ...

in the court of King

Henry VIII Henry VIII (28 June 149128 January 1547) was King of England from 22 April 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry is known for his Wives of Henry VIII, six marriages and his efforts to have his first marriage (to Catherine of Aragon) annulled. ...

. Strawberries can be frozen or made into jam or preserves, as well as dried and used in prepared foods, such as cereal bars. In the United Kingdom, strawberries and cream is a popular dessert at the

Wimbledon Wimbledon most often refers to: * Wimbledon, London, a district of southwest London * Wimbledon Championships, the oldest tennis tournament in the world and one of the four Grand Slam championships Wimbledon may also refer to: Places London * W ...

tennis tournament. Desserts using strawberries include

pavlova Pavlova is a meringue-based dessert. Originating in either Australia or New Zealand in the early 20th century, it was named after the Russian ballerina Anna Pavlova.Boylen, Jeremy (reporter) (20 August 2004)Pavlova''George Negus Tonight'', Au ...

, '' fraisier'', and strawberry

shortcake Shortcake generally refers to a dessert with a crumbly scone-like texture. There are multiple variations of shortcake, most of which are served with fruit and cream. One of the most popular is strawberry shortcake, which is typically served wit ...

. File:Strawberries and cream Wimbledon 2014.jpg, Strawberries and cream File:Strawberry cheesecake round.jpg,

Cheesecake Cheesecake is a dessert made with a soft fresh cheese (typically cottage cheese, cream cheese, quark or ricotta), eggs, and sugar. It may have a crust or base made from crushed cookies (or digestive biscuits), graham crackers, pastry, ...

File:Pavlova dessert.JPG,

Pavlova Pavlova is a meringue-based dessert. Originating in either Australia or New Zealand in the early 20th century, it was named after the Russian ballerina Anna Pavlova.Boylen, Jeremy (reporter) (20 August 2004)Pavlova''George Negus Tonight'', Au ...

File:外出しいちご大福 (35861044490).jpg, Daifuku File:20110703-13-chocolate strawberries (5972300405).jpg, Chocolate-covered File:Jordgubb sorbet.jpg,

Sorbet Sorbet (, ) is a frozen dessert made using ice combined with fruit juice, fruit purée, or other ingredients, such as wine, liqueur, or honey. Sorbet does not contain dairy products. Sherbet is similar to sorbet, but contains dairy. Etymolog ...

File:Gelato alla fragola e stracciatella - Sicilia, Siracusa (cropped).jpg,

Ice cream Ice cream is a frozen dessert typically made from milk or cream that has been flavoured with a sweetener, either sugar or an alternative, and a spice, such as Chocolate, cocoa or vanilla, or with fruit, such as strawberries or peaches. Food ...

File:Home-canned strawberry jam.jpg, Jam

In art, literature and culture

The Roman poet

Ovid Publius Ovidius Naso (; 20 March 43 BC – AD 17/18), known in English as Ovid ( ), was a Augustan literature (ancient Rome), Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a younger contemporary of Virgil and Horace, with whom he i ...

wrote that in the past Golden Age, people had lived on wild fruits such as mountain strawberries.

wrote in his

Eclogues The ''Eclogues'' (; , ), also called the ''Bucolics'', is the first of the three major works of the Latin poet Virgil. Background Taking as his generic model the Greek bucolic poetry of Theocritus, Virgil created a Roman version partly by o ...

that "Ye who cull flowers and low-growing strawberries, / Away from here lads; a chill snake lurks in the grass", and his imagery was taken up by medieval and

early modern The early modern period is a Periodization, historical period that is defined either as part of or as immediately preceding the modern period, with divisions based primarily on the history of Europe and the broader concept of modernity. There i ...

writers, the snake beneath the strawberry standing for dangerous literature, or beautiful but unfaithful women, or eventually any risky pleasure. In this vein,

's King

Richard III Richard III (2 October 1452 – 22 August 1485) was King of England from 26 June 1483 until his death in 1485. He was the last king of the Plantagenet dynasty and its cadet branch the House of York. His defeat and death at the Battle of Boswor ...

asks for a dish of strawberries while feigning friendship to his enemy; while in ''

Othello ''The Tragedy of Othello, the Moor of Venice'', often shortened to ''Othello'' (), is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare around 1603. Set in Venice and Cyprus, the play depicts the Moorish military commander Othello as he is manipulat ...

'', Iago shows

Desdemona Desdemona () is a character in William Shakespeare's play ''Othello'' (c. 1601–1604). Shakespeare's Desdemona is a Venice, Italy, Venetian beauty who enrages and disappoints her father, a Venetian senator, when she elopes with Othello (char ...

's handkerchief "spotted with strawberries", implying she has been unfaithful and hinting at Iago's own devious plans. The strawberry is found in Italian, Flemish, and German art, and in English miniatures. In medieval depictions, the strawberry often appears in the

Virgin Mary Mary was a first-century Jewish woman of Nazareth, the wife of Saint Joseph, Joseph and the mother of Jesus. She is an important figure of Christianity, venerated under titles of Mary, mother of Jesus, various titles such as Perpetual virginity ...

's garden, while in the ''Madonna of the Strawberries'', she is seated on a strawberry bed and garlanded with strawberry leaves. In the work of the late medieval painter

, strawberries feature in ''

'' amongst "frolicking nude figures". Fray Jose de Siguenza described the painting as embodying the strawberry as a symbol of the

ephemerality Ephemerality (from the Greek word , meaning 'lasting only one day') is the concept of things being transitory, existing only briefly. Academically, the term ephemeral constitutionally describes a diverse assortment of things and experiences, f ...

of earthly joys. More recently, scholars have seen the symbolism entirely differently: Clément Wertheim-Aymes believed it meant the blessed souls' benefit from religion; Pater Gerlach supposed it meant spiritual love; and Laurinda Dixon asserted it was part of an

allegory As a List of narrative techniques, literary device or artistic form, an allegory is a wikt:narrative, narrative or visual representation in which a character, place, or event can be interpreted to represent a meaning with moral or political signi ...

of death and resurrection. By the late 20th century, the strawberry (and the

raspberry The raspberry is the edible fruit of several plant species in the genus ''Rubus'' of the Rosaceae, rose family, most of which are in the subgenus ''Rubus#Modern classification, Idaeobatus''. The name also applies to these plants themselves. Ras ...

) had become "traditional symbols of the mouth and female sexuality". File:Oberrheinischer Meister - Madonna mit den Erdbeeren.png, ''Madonna of the Strawberries'',
the Upper Rhenish Master, 1420–1430 File:Bosch, Hieronymus - The Garden of Earthly Delights, central panel - Detai Man eating a strawberry, Man eating a cherry, and a man bending over a fictional fruit.jpg, ''

'', man eating a strawberry (detail),

, 1490–1500 File:The strawberry girl.PNG, ''The strawberry girl'',

Ammi Phillips Ammi Phillips (April 24, 1788 – July 11, 1865) was a prolific American itinerant portrait painter active from the mid 1810s to the early 1860s in Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New York. His artwork is identified as folk art, primitive art, p ...

, 1830 File:Still Life with Strawberry Basket.jpg, ''Still Life with Strawberry Basket'',
Severin Roesen, 1860–1871 File:Strawberry gatherers (1880), by William Gunning King.jpg, ''Strawberry Gatherers'',
William Gunning King, 1880 File:Strawberrythief.jpg, " Strawberry Thief" textile pattern,

William Morris William Morris (24 March 1834 – 3 October 1896) was an English textile designer, poet, artist, writer, and socialist activist associated with the British Arts and Crafts movement. He was a major contributor to the revival of traditiona ...

, 1883 File:Renoir - Still Life with Strawberries, 1914.jpg, ''Still Life with Strawberries'',

Pierre-Auguste Renoir Pierre-Auguste Renoir (; ; 25 February 1841 – 3 December 1919) was a French people, French artist who was a leading painter in the development of the Impressionism, Impressionist style. As a celebrator of beauty and especially femininity, fe ...

, 1914

References

External links

''Fragaria'' × ''ananassa'' data from GRIN Taxonomy Database
* {{Authority control Articles containing video clips Crops Fragaria Hybrid fruit Strawberries Symbols of Delaware