Etymology
The earliest records, such as Kalhana's '' Rajatarangini'', mentions the Sanskrit name ''shri-nagara'' which have been interpreted distinctively by scholars in two ways: one being ''"The city of "Śrī''" (), the Hindu goddess of prosperity, meaning "''City of Lakshmi''" and other being ''sūrya-nagar'', meaning "''City of the Surya''" (trans) ''"City of Sun''." The name was used for an older capital in the vicinity of the present-day city, before being used for it. Between the 14th and 19th centuries, and especially during Mughal rule, the city was also referred to simply as ''Kashmir'' or ''Shahr-i-Kashmir'' ().History
Early history
According to the Rajatarangini of Kalhana, a capital city by the name of ''Srinagari'' was built in the Kashmir valley by Ashoka. Kalhana calls this capital ''puranadhisthana'', Sanskrit for 'old capital', identified as present-day Pandrethan, 3.5 kilometres south-east of Srinagar. A 'new capital' was built by king Pravarasena, called ''Parvarapura'', in 6th century CE. ''Srinagari'' continued to be used as a name for this capital. This new capital was located at the base of the Hari Parbat hill on the right bank of the Jhelum, corresponding to the location of modern-day Srinagar. Kalhana describes the capital having several markets, mansions, wooden houses, grand temples and canals, and also refers to the Dal lake and Jhelum river. A long embankment was constructed on the Jhelum by Pravarasena to protect the city from floods, parts of which have survived to the present day. The two capitals are also mentioned in the chronicle of Chinese traveller Huein Tsang who visited the city in 631 CE. Although several other capitals of Kashmir were constructed by other rulers over the next few centuries, Pravarasena's Srinagar survived as the capital. The city was divided into several parts, each with its own guardian deity, which continue to be worshipped by Hindu Kashmiris. The 8th century scholar Adi Shankara visited the city and founded the Shankaracharya Temple here, at the site of the earlier Jyeshteshwara Temple. The city gradually extended to the left bank of the Jhelum river, and in the early 12th century the royal palace was shifted to this side.Sultanate period
Rinchana, a Buddhist convert to Islam who briefly ruled Kashmir in the early 14th century, built the first mosque in Kashmir on the site of a Buddhist temple in a colony of Srinagar built by him. The Muslim rulers that came after him established their capitals in areas of present-day old city Srinagar. During the rule of the Sultans, the city became synonymous with the Kashmir valley, and 'Srinagar' fell into disuse as a name for it. During the rule of Qutbuddin, Islamic preacher Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani visited the valley and established his seat of preaching in Srinagar. Sultan Sikandar Shahmiri (1389–1413 CE) built the '' Khanqah-e-Moula'' at this location, and also built the Jamia Mosque at Nowhatta in 1402. The oldest surviving example of forcible conversion of a Hindu place of worship into Muslim shrine in Kashmir also appears from Srinagar under Sikandar's rule. Sikandar's successor Zain-ul-Abidin undertook several constructions in and around Srinagar. He built the '' Zainakadal'' bridge connecting the two halves of the city on either side of the Jhelum river, the Mar canal and two islands inside Dal lake called Sona Lank and Rupa Lank. He also built a stone shrine for his Islamic teacher at Madin Sahib, and a brick mausoleum for his mother constructed using materials from a Hindu structure and showing Timurid influences, where he was also buried after his death. He is also credited with establishing industries around the arts of shawl and carpet weaving, papier-maché, and wood carving in Srinagar.Mughal rule
Afghan and Sikh rule
In 1753, Kashmir passed into the hands of the Afghan Durrani Empire. The Afghans undertook reconstructions in Srinagar and built the palace at Shergarhi at the site of a pre-existing ancient palace, as well as the fort atop Hari Parbat. However, contemporary accounts describe the city as filthy and deteriorating, and it also saw worsening inter-community relations during Afghan rule, with repeated Hindu-Muslim and Shia-Sunni riots, and state persecution of Pandits. In 1819, the Sikh Empire assumed control of Kashmir. Under them, ''Srinagar'', the old name of the city, was restored. The situation in the city did not improve much under Sikh rule, and the city remained in a state of decay. They also imposed several restrictions on Muslim religious expression, and closed the gates of the Jamia Mosque, which remained closed until 1843. A Shia-Sunni riot happened in the city in 1837.Dogra rule
Partition and Independence
In 1947, after the princely state's accession to India following an invasion of the state by Pakistani irregulars in the aftermath of the partition of India, Indian forces were airlifted to Srinagar on 27 October to defend the city and the larger Kashmir valley. The National Conference also established a popular people's militia in the city to aid the army in their defence of the territory. Srinagar became the summer capital of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir when it was established in 1952. In 1963–1964, the relic at the Hazratbal Shrine in Srinagar briefly disappeared, causing political turmoil. Following this, the shrine was reconstructed between 1968 and 1979 in a Mughal-inspired style. In 1989, Srinagar became the focus of the insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir. The city saw increased violence against the minority Hindus—particularly the Kashmiri Pandits—during the insurgency which resulted in their ultimate exodus. Kashmiri Hindus constituted 8.39% of Srinagar's population in the 1981 census and 2.75% in the 2011 census. The Gawakadal massacre took place in the city in January 1990, resulting in 50–100 deaths. As a result, bunkers and checkpoints are found throughout the city, although their numbers have come down in the past few years as militancy has declined. Protests against Indian rule still occur with large demonstrations happening in 2008, 2010, 2013, and 2016. After revocation of the special status of Jammu and Kashmir and the subsequent devolution of the state into a union territory in August 2019, a lockdown was imposed in Kashmir, including in Srinagar.Geography
The city is located on both the sides of the Jhelum River, called ''Vyath'' in Kashmir. The river passes through the city and meanders through the valley, moving onward and deepening in the Wular Lake. The city is known for its nine old bridges, connecting the two parts of the city. There are a number of lakes and swamps in and around the city. These include the Dal, the Nigeen, the Anchar, Khushal Sar, Gil Sar and Hokersar. Hokersar is a wetland situated near Srinagar. Thousands of migratory birds come to Hokersar from Siberia and other regions in the winter season. Migratory birds from Siberia and Central Asia use wetlands in Kashmir as their transitory camps between September and October and again around spring. These wetlands play a vital role in sustaining a large population of wintering, staging and breeding birds. Hokersar is north of Srinagar, and is a world class wetland spread over including lake and marshy area. It is the most accessible and well-known of Kashmir's wetlands which include Hygam, Shalibug and Mirgund. A record number of migratory birds have visited Hokersar in recent years. Birds found in Hokersar are migratory ducks and geese which include brahminy duck, tufted duck, gadwall, garganey, greylag goose, mallard, common merganser, northern pintail, common pochard, ferruginous pochard, red-crested pochard, ruddy shelduck, northern shoveller, common teal, and Eurasian wigeon.Climate
Under the Köppen climate classification, Srinagar has a four-season humid subtropical climate (''Cfa'') with moderately hot summers and cool winters. The valley is surrounded by the Himalayas on all sides. Due to influence from Himalayan rain shadow and western disturbances, Srinagar has year-round precipitation; the spring season is the wettest while autumn is the driest. The region also has less rain from the southwest monsoon in the summer due to lying in the leeward side of the rain shadow which reduces these winds from the south. Winters are colder in the region than most areas with monsoon climates due to these influences and its elevation, resulting in higher temperature variations similar toEconomy
In November 2011, the City Mayors Foundationan advocacy think tankannounced that Srinagar was the 92nd fastest growing urban areas in the world in terms of economic growth, based on actual data from 2006 onwards and projections to 2020.Tourism
Srinagar is one of several places that have been called the " Venice of the East". Lakes around the city include Dal Lakenoted for its houseboats and Nigeen Lake. Apart from Dal Lake and Nigeen Lake, Wular Lake and Manasbal Lake both lie to the north of Srinagar. Wular Lake is one of the largest fresh water lakes in Asia. Srinagar has some Mughal gardens, forming a part of those laid by the Mughal emperors across the Indian subcontinent. Those of Srinagar and its close vicinity include Chashma Shahi (the royal fountains); Pari Mahal (the palace of the fairies); Nishat Bagh (the garden of spring); Shalimar Bagh; the Naseem Bagh. Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Botanical Garden is a botanical garden in the city, set up in 1969. The Indian government has included these gardens under "Mughal Gardens of Jammu and Kashmir" in the tentative list for sites to be included in world Heritage sites. The Sher Garhi Palace houses administrative buildings from the state government. Another palace of the Maharajas, the Gulab Bhavan, has now become the Lalit Grand Palace hotel. The Shankaracharya Temple lies on a hill top in the middle of the city.Places of Interest
In and Around Srinagar
* Dal Lake and its Houseboats * Nigeen Lake * Anchar Lake and Shallabugh Wetland, a Ramsar site * Hokersar Wetland Ramsar Site * Shalimar Garden * Nishat Garden * Chashme Shahi Garden * Pari Mahal * Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Botanical Garden * Hari Parbat * Dachigam National Park * Shankaracharya Temple * Hazratbal Shrine * Jama Masjid * Khanqah-e-Moula * Pathar Mosque * Aali Mosque * Burzahom Neolithic and Chalcolithic Site * Zain-ul-Abidin's Tomb * Sher Garhi Palace * Gulab Bhavan * Meruvarddhanaswami Temple, PandrethanNear Srinagar
* Wular Lake, a Ramsar site – 46 km. * Manasbal Lake – 25 km. * Hygam Wetland Conservation Reserve, a Ramsar site – 34 km. * Pahalgam – 85 km. * Gulmarg – 52 km. * Anantnag – 54 km. * Martand Sun Temple, near Anantnag – 62 km. * Achabal Gardens, near Anantnag – 63 km. * Verinag – 86 km.Government and politics
The city is run by the Srinagar Municipal Corporation (SMC) under the leadership of aStray dog controversy
Srinagar's city government attracted brief international attention in March 2008 when it announced a mass poisoning program aimed at eliminating the city's population of stray dogs. Officials estimate that 100,000 stray dogs roam the streets of the city, which has a human population of just under 900,000. In a survey conducted by an NGO, it was found that some residents welcomed this program, saying the city was overrun by dogs, while critics contended that more humane methods should be used to deal with the animals. The situation has become alarming with local news reports coming up at frequent intervals highlighting people, especially children being mauled by street dogs.Demographics
As of 2011 census Srinagar urban agglomeration had a population of 1,264,202. Both the city and the urban agglomeration has average literacy rate of approximately 70%. The child population of both the city and the urban agglomeration is approximately 12% of the total population. Males constituted 53.0% and females 47% of the population. The sex ratio in the city area is 888 females per 1000 males, whereas in the urban agglomeration it is 880 per 1,000. The predominant religion of Srinagar is Islam with 96% of the population being Muslim. Hindus constitute the second largest religious group representing 2.75% of the population, nearly all migrant workers from outside Kashmir as most local Kashmiri Hindus fled the city in the 1990s. The remaining population constitutes Sikhs, Buddhist and Jains. Kashmiri Hindus constituted 21.9% of Srinagar's population as per 1891 census and 2.75% as per 2011 census. At the time of the 2011 census, 95.14% spoke Kashmiri and 1.49% Hindi as their first language.Transport
Road
The city is served by many highways, including National Highway 1A and National Highway 1D.Air
Srinagar International Airport has regular domestic flights to Leh, Jammu, Chandigarh, Delhi andRail
Srinagar is a station on the long Banihal-Baramulla line that started in October 2009 and connects Baramulla to Srinagar, Anantnag and Qazigund. The railway track also connects to Banihal across the Pir Panjal mountains through a newly constructed 11 km long Banihal tunnel, and subsequently to the Indian railway network after a few years. It takes approximately 9 minutes and 30 seconds for a train to cross the tunnel. It is the longest rail tunnel in India. This railway system, proposed in 2001, is not expected to connect the Indian railway network until 2017 at the earliest, with a cost overrun of 55 billion INR. The train also runs during heavy snow. There are proposals to develop a metro system in the city. The feasibility report for the Srinagar Metro is planned to be carried out by Delhi Metro Rail Corporation.Cable car
In December 2013, the 594m cable car allowing people to travel to the shrine of the Sufi saint Hamza Makhdoom on Hari Parbat was unveiled. The project is run by the Jammu and Kashmir Cable Car Corporation (JKCCC), and has been envisioned for 25 years. An investment of 300 million INR was made, and it is the second cable car in Kashmir after the Gulmarg Gondola.Boat
While popular since the 7th century, water transport is now mainly confined to Dal Lake, where shikaras (wooden boats) are used for local transport and tourism. There are efforts to revive transportation on the River Jhelum.Culture
Like the territory of Jammu and Kashmir, Srinagar too has a distinctive blend of cultural heritage. Holy places in and around the city depict the historical cultural and religious diversity of the city as well as the Kashmir valley.Places of worship
There are many religious holy places in Srinagar. They include: * Hazratbal Shrine, only domed mosque in the city. * Jama Masjid, Srinagar, one of the oldest mosques in Kashmir * Khanqah-e-Moula, first Islamic centre in Kashmir * Aali Masjid, in Eidgah Locality * Hari Parbat hill hosts shrine of Sharika Mata temple * Zeashta Devi Shrine a holy shrine for Kashmiri Hindus * Shankaracharya temple * Gurdwara Chatti Patshahi * Pathar Masjid * All Saints Church, Srinagar * Holy Family Catholic Church (Srinagar) Additional structures include the Dastgeer Sahib shrine, Mazar-e-Shuhada, Roza Bal shrine, Khanqah of Shah Hamadan, Pathar Masjid ("The Stone Mosque"), Hamza Makhdoom shrine, tomb of the mother of Zain-ul-abidin, tomb of Pir Haji Muhammad, Akhun Mulla Shah Mosque, cemetery of Baha-ud-din Sahib, tomb and Madin Sahib Mosque at Zadibal. Apart from these, dozens of smaller mosques are located all over the city. Several temples and temple ghats are located on the banks of river Jhelum in Srinagar, including Shurayar temple, Gadhadhar temple, Pratapishwar temple, Ganpatyar Ganesh temple, Purshyar temple, Sheshyar temple, Raghunath Mandir, Durga Patshala and Dhar temple. Gurdwaras are located in Rainawari, Amira Kadal, Jawahar Nagar, Mehjoor Nagar, Shaheed Gunj, Maharajpur and Indra Nagar areas of the city. There are three Christian churches in Srinagar. The Sheikh Bagh Cemetery is a Christian cemetery located in Srinagar that dates from the British colonial era. The oldest grave in the cemetery is that of a British colonel from the 9th Lancers of 1850 and the cemetery is valued for the variety of persons buried there which provides an insight into the perils faced by British colonisers in India. It was damaged by floods in 2014. It contains a number of war graves. The notable interments here are Robert Thorpe and Jim Borst.Performing arts
Kashmiri cuisine is an important part of Srinagar’s Culture. Here, both vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes can be found. Wazwaan is a multi-course meal generally served at weddings. It is served on beautiful huge Copper plates called tream. Wazwaan is prepared by Male chefs. Kahwa is a form of green tea and is made by boiling green tea leaves with local saffron, cinnamon, cardamom and Kashmiri roses. Harissa is winter delicacy here generally eaten during chilai kalan ( a period of extreme cold ; 40 days from Dec 20 ).Garnished with two wazwaan delicacies along and topped with hot smoking mustard oil, this is the spicy slow cooked meat usually served with Kashmiri bread Tchot. It is prepared for hours usually overnight and generally eaten in the early cold winter.Education
Srinagar is home to various premiere Higher Education Institutes including the University of Kashmir, the Cluster University of Srinagar, Central University of Kashmir besides the National Institute of Technology Srinagar formerly known as Regional Engineering College (REC Srinagar). Most of these are among the oldest and earliest Institutions of the country including the University of Kashmir dating back to 1948 while the National Institute of Technology Srinagar was established during the second Five year plan. The educational institutions in the City include: Schools * Tyndale Biscoe School * Presentation Convent Higher Secondary School * Burn Hall School * Khalsa High School, Srinagar * Mallinson Girls School * Delhi Public School, Srinagar * Woodlands House School * Little Angels High School, Srinagar * Green Valley Educational Institute Medical colleges * Government Medical College, Srinagar * SMHS Hospital * Sher-i-Kashmir Institute of Medical Sciences Universities * University of Kashmir * Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir * Central University of Kashmir * Cluster University of Srinagar General degree colleges * Amar Singh College * Sri Pratap College *Broadcasting
Srinagar is broadcasting hub for radio channels in UT which are Radio Mirchi 98.3FM, Red FM 93.5 and AIR Srinagar. State television channel DD Kashir is also broadcast.Sports
Notable people
* Agha Shahid Ali (1949–2001) * Joanna Lumley (1946–present) * Bakshi Abdur Rashid (1923–1977) * Reshma of Kashmir, Reshma (1951/1952–2022), singer and transgender activist * Pandit Jia Lal Saraf, Sanskrit scholarSee also
* Kashmir conflict * Downtown (Srinagar) * Kashmir Shaivism * List of State Protected Monuments in Jammu and Kashmir * List of colleges in Srinagar * Lal Chowk * Karan NagarReferences
Bibliography
* * Hewson, Eileen. (2008) ''Graveyards in Kashmir India''. Wem, England: Kabristan Archives. * * * * *External links
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