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General elections were held in
South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the Southern Africa, southernmost country in Africa. Its Provinces of South Africa, nine provinces are bounded to the south by of coastline that stretches along the Atlantic O ...
between 26 and 29 April 1994. The elections were the first in which citizens of all races were allowed to take part, and were therefore also the first held with
universal suffrage Universal suffrage or universal franchise ensures the right to vote for as many people bound by a government's laws as possible, as supported by the " one person, one vote" principle. For many, the term universal suffrage assumes the exclusion ...
. The election was conducted under the direction of the Independent Electoral Commission (IEC), and marked the culmination of the four-year process that ended apartheid. Millions queued in lines over a four-day voting period. Altogether, 19,726,579 votes were counted, and 193,081 were rejected as invalid. As widely expected, the
African National Congress The African National Congress (ANC) is a political party in South Africa. It originated as a liberation movement known for its opposition to apartheid and has governed the country since 1994, when the 1994 South African general election, fir ...
(ANC), whose slate incorporated the labour confederation COSATU and the
South African Communist Party The South African Communist Party (SACP) is a communist party in South Africa. It was founded on 12 February 1921 as the Communist Party of South Africa (CPSA), and tactically dissolved itself in 1950 in the face of being declared illegal by t ...
(SACP), won a sweeping victory, taking 62 percent of the vote, just short of the two-thirds majority required to unilaterally amend the Interim Constitution. As required by that document, the ANC formed a Government of National Unity with the National Party and the
Inkatha Freedom Party The Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP; ) is a conservative political party in South Africa, which is a part of the current South African Third Cabinet of Cyril Ramaphosa, government of national unity together with the African National Congress (ANC). A ...
, the two other parties that won more than 20 seats in the
National Assembly In politics, a national assembly is either a unicameral legislature, the lower house of a bicameral legislature, or both houses of a bicameral legislature together. In the English language it generally means "an assembly composed of the repr ...
. The governing National Party polled just over 20%, and was thus eligible for a post of Vice President to incumbent president De Klerk. The new National Assembly's first act was to elect
Nelson Mandela Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela ( , ; born Rolihlahla Mandela; 18 July 1918 – 5 December 2013) was a South African Internal resistance to apartheid, anti-apartheid activist and politician who served as the first president of South Africa f ...
as
President President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) * President (education), a leader of a college or university *President (government title) President may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Film and television *'' Præsident ...
, making him the country's first black chief executive. He then appointed the Cabinet of Nelson Mandela. The date 27 April is now a public holiday in South Africa, Freedom Day.


Background


Apartheid

In 1948, the newly elected National Party government in South Africa began to institute
apartheid Apartheid ( , especially South African English:  , ; , ) was a system of institutionalised racial segregation that existed in South Africa and South West Africa (now Namibia) from 1948 to the early 1990s. It was characterised by an ...
, an institutionalized system of
racial segregation Racial segregation is the separation of people into race (human classification), racial or other Ethnicity, ethnic groups in daily life. Segregation can involve the spatial separation of the races, and mandatory use of different institutions, ...
that placed sociopolitical dominance in the hands of the European-descended white minority. Under the
Population Registration Act, 1950 The Population Registration Act of 1950 required that each inhabitant of South Africa be classified and registered in accordance with their racial characteristics as part of the system of apartheid. Social rights, political rights, educational ...
, all South Africans were categorised by the government as White,
Black Black is a color that results from the absence or complete absorption of visible light. It is an achromatic color, without chroma, like white and grey. It is often used symbolically or figuratively to represent darkness.Eva Heller, ''P ...
,
Coloured Coloureds () are multiracial people in South Africa, Namibia and, to a smaller extent, Zimbabwe and Zambia. Their ancestry descends from the interracial mixing that occurred between Europeans, Africans and Asians. Interracial mixing in South ...
(mixed) or Indian. Suffrage was reserved for Whites, interracial sexual relationships were forbidden and over 80% of the country's land was reserved for the white majority. Members of the Black majority were stripped of citizenship under the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act, 1970, and were instead made citizens of one of the country's "
bantustan A Bantustan (also known as a Bantu peoples, Bantu homeland, a Black people, black homeland, a Khoisan, black state or simply known as a homeland; ) was a territory that the National Party (South Africa), National Party administration of the ...
s", territories reserved for various black ethnic groups. The South African government faced international condemnation against the backdrop of the
decolonisation of Africa The decolonisation of Africa was a series of political developments in Africa that spanned from the mid-1950s to 1975, during the Cold War. Colony, Colonial governments gave way to sovereign states in a process often marred by violence, politic ...
, and by the 1980s, the state was struggling with major internal political violence, a war of independence in Namibia and intervention in Angola and a failing economy burdened by international sanctions and the heavy costs of national security, effectively forcing the government to move towards political reform. In 1983, P. W. Botha's government approved a new constitution, which implemented a
Tricameral Parliament The Tricameral Parliament, officially the Parliament of the Republic of South Africa, was the legislature of South Africa between 1984 and 1994, established by the South African Constitution of 1983, which gave a limited political voice to ...
, with additional houses representing the Coloured and Indian populations. However, Blacks remained unrepresented in parliament, with political representation only existing under the bantustan system. Anti-apartheid groups opposed to the Tricameral Parliament instead reorganized under the umbrella of the United Democratic Front. The 1984 election to the non-white houses of parliament also faced widespread boycotts from Indian and Coloured voters. In 1985, the government introduced a sweeping
state of emergency A state of emergency is a situation in which a government is empowered to put through policies that it would normally not be permitted to do, for the safety and protection of its citizens. A government can declare such a state before, during, o ...
in response to growing civil unrest, which included sweeping restrictions on
freedom of movement Freedom of movement, mobility rights, or the right to travel is a human rights concept encompassing the right of individuals to travel from place to place within the territory of a country,Jérémiee Gilbert, ''Nomadic Peoples and Human Rights'' ...
,
freedom of speech Freedom of speech is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or a community to articulate their opinions and ideas without fear of retaliation, censorship, or legal sanction. The rights, right to freedom of expression has been r ...
and
freedom of the press Freedom of the press or freedom of the media is the fundamental principle that communication and expression through various media, including printed and electronic Media (communication), media, especially publication, published materials, shoul ...
, particularly for non-White South Africans. In 1989, F. W. de Klerk was elected
State President of South Africa The State President of the Republic of South Africa () was the head of state of South Africa from 1961 to 1994. The office was established when the country 1960 South African republic referendum, became a republic on 31 May 1961, outside the ...
, succeeding Botha. On 2 February 1990, de Klerk made a speech at the opening of Parliament in
Cape Town Cape Town is the legislature, legislative capital city, capital of South Africa. It is the country's oldest city and the seat of the Parliament of South Africa. Cape Town is the country's List of municipalities in South Africa, second-largest ...
, in which he unexpectedly announced his intention to unban anti-apartheid groups such as the ANC, SACP and the
Pan Africanist Congress of Azania The Pan Africanist Congress of Azania, often shortened to the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC), is a South African pan-Africanist national liberation movement that is now a political party. It was founded by an Africanist group, led by Robert S ...
(PAC), to release political prisoners such as ANC leader Nelson Mandela and requested a process of negotiation with the anti-apartheid opposition. On 11 February, Mandela was released from Victor Verster Prison in Cape Town, after 27 years of incarceration.


Political transition

Formal negotiations between the ANC and the government were initially scheduled to begin on 11 April 1990. However on 26 March, police opened fire on protestors in the township of
Sebokeng Sebokeng () locally called Zweni by residents, is a middle-class township in the Emfuleni Local Municipality in southern Gauteng, South Africa near the industrial cities of Vanderbijlpark and Vereeniging. Other neighboring townships include Ev ...
, killing 11 people. Consequently, the ANC cancelled the talks, and negotiations were only rescheduled for 2–4 May following an emergency meeting between Mandela and de Klerk. The "talks about talks" were held at the
Groote Schuur Groote Schuur (; ) is an estate in Cape Town, South Africa. In 1657, the estate was owned by the Dutch East India Company which used it partly as a granary. Later, the farm and farmhouse was sold into private hands. Groote Schuur was later acqu ...
presidential estate, and were intended to discuss terms before more substantive constitutional negotiations could begin. The parties jointly agreed to aim to end political violence, and to establish a joint working group. On 6 August, the government and ANC issued a further joint declaration, known as the Pretoria Minute, in which the ANC and its armed wing, uMkhonto weSizwe (MK) agreed to the suspension of armed activities, in exchange for the government lifting of the State of Emergency (then only active in
Natal Province The Province of Natal (), commonly called Natal, was a province of South Africa from May 1910 until May 1994. Its capital was Pietermaritzburg. During this period rural areas inhabited by the black African population of Natal were organised int ...
), further release of political prisoners from September 1990, and a review of certain provisions of the Internal Security Act. On 14 September 1991, 24 organisations signed the National Peace Accord, which included a code of conduct for political parties and security forces, and structures for the resolution of political conflict, such as the Goldstone Commission. On 30 November 1991, 19 organisations announced that the first meeting of the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) would be held in Johannesburg on 20 and 21 December 1991, in order to discuss constitutional arrangements. The CODESA 1 plenary session saw all participating groups, except for the
Inkatha Freedom Party The Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP; ) is a conservative political party in South Africa, which is a part of the current South African Third Cabinet of Cyril Ramaphosa, government of national unity together with the African National Congress (ANC). A ...
(IFP) and the government of the
Bophuthatswana Bophuthatswana (, ), officially the Republic of Bophuthatswana (; ), and colloquially referred to as the Bop and by outsiders as Jigsawland (In reference to its enclave-ridden borders) was a Bantustan (also known as "Homeland", an area set asid ...
homeland, agree to a declaration of intent on establishing a united South Africa with common citizenship for all racial groups, and to promote peaceful political participation so that constitutional change could be advanced. Working groups were established with the aim of forming a constitution-making body, deciding the future of the bantustans, and establishing an interim government within a set time frame. CODESA 1 was not attended by the
PAC Pac or PAC may refer to: Aviation * IATA code PAC Albrook "Marcos A. Gelabert" International Airport in Panama City, Panama * Pacific Aerospace Corporation, New Zealand, manufacturer of aircraft: ** PAC 750XL ** PAC Cresco ** PAC CT/4 ** PA ...
, Conservative Party (CP) or
Azanian People's Organisation The Azanian People's Organisation (AZAPO) is a South African liberation movement and political party. The organisation's two student wings are the Azanian Students' Movement (AZASM) for high school learners and the Azanian Students' Convention (A ...
(AZAPO). Around the same time, de Klerk's National Party government faced a series of whites-only
by-election A by-election, also known as a special election in the United States and the Philippines, or a bypoll in India, is an election used to fill an office that has become vacant between general elections. A vacancy may arise as a result of an incumben ...
losses, leading his government to hold a referendum on 17 March 1992 on the continuation of the negotiation process. The NP and Democratic Party campaigned for a "Yes" vote, while the CP supported the "No" vote. The referendum produced a landslide victory for the government, with 68.3% of voters voting "Yes" for the process to end the apartheid system. The second session, CODESA 2, convened at the Kempton Park World Trade Centre on 25 May 1992. The session collapsed following a deadlock on constitutional issues between the ANC and NP. In response to the failure of negotiations, the ANC announced a campaign of "rolling mass action", encompassing public protests and strikes in order to pressure the government to meet its demands. On 23 June, the ANC announced the suspension of talks after alleging government complicity in a 17 June massacre against residents of the township of Boipatong by supporters of the Inkatha Freedom Party. On 7 September, ANC supporters, marching against the government of Oupa Gqozo in the homeland of
Ciskei Ciskei ( , meaning ''on this side of Great Kei River, he riverKei''), officially the Republic of Ciskei (), was a Bantustan for the Xhosa people, located in the southeast of South Africa. It covered an area of , almost entirely surrounded b ...
, were opened fire on by the Ciskei Defence Force in the homeland's capital,
Bhisho Bhisho, formerly Bisho, is the capital of the Eastern Cape province in South Africa. The Office of the Premier, Provincial Legislature and many other government departments are headquartered in the town. The town, three kilometres from Qonce and ...
, killing 29 people. Despite the massacre often being cited as the impetus for a return to negotiations, the aftermath saw an escalation of political violence in Ciskei. While negotiations between the ANC and NP had been suspended, unofficial talks were continued from June 1992 without authorization between
Cyril Ramaphosa Matamela Cyril Ramaphosa (born 17 November 1952) is a South African businessman and politician serving as the 5th and current President of South Africa since 2018. A former Anti-Apartheid Movement, anti-apartheid activist and trade union leade ...
of the ANC and Roelf Meyer of the NP. The talks culminated in the official Record of Understanding between the ANC and the government on the 26 September, recognizing agreements reached between the two in meetings. On 1-2 April 1993, a new multilateral conference, the Multiparty Negotiating Process, was first attended at Kempton Park by 26 different organizations. The only significant absent groups were AZAPO and some Afrikaner nationalist organizations. In October 1992, the IFP initiated the formation of the Concerned South Africans Group (COSAG) alongside the bantustan governments of Bophuthatswana and Ciskei and the white pro-apartheid Conservative Party, in protest at its alleged sidelining during the negotiation process, and in order to ensure its representation among factions other than the national government and the anti-apartheid opposition. In June 1993, the IFP walked out from the MPNF in protest at the mechanism being used to determine the upcoming election date. Bophuthatswana and Ciskei continued participation until withdrawing in October, upon which COSAG was replaced with the Freedom Alliance, incorporating additional far-right elements. On 17 November 1993, an MPNF plenary meeting endorsed an interim constitution, under which non-racial elections were due to be held on 27 April 1994.


Political violence

Prior to the political transition, South Africa suffered from serious internal political violence, which intensified following the government's announcement of the negotiation process in 1990. Political violence was perpetrated by various actors, including the state, anti-apartheid groups, bantustan authorities, Zulu supporters of the Inkatha Freedom Party and pro-apartheid white supremacist groups.


Conduct

After initially announcing a boycott due to constitutional disagreements, the
Inkatha Freedom Party The Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP; ) is a conservative political party in South Africa, which is a part of the current South African Third Cabinet of Cyril Ramaphosa, government of national unity together with the African National Congress (ANC). A ...
(IFP) reversed its decision on 19 April, days before the election. It was added to the already-printed ballot papers by means of a sticker. In rural areas with limited infrastructure, people queued "for days" in order to vote. The Afrikaner nationalist and pro-apartheid Conservative Party, the official opposition in the outgoing National Assembly, did not contest the elections. The similarly aligned
Herstigte Nasionale Party The Herstigte Nasionale Party () is a South African political party which was formed as a far-right splinter group of the now defunct National Party in 1969. The party name was commonly abbreviated as HNP, evoking the Herenigde Nasionale Pa ...
, which had run in the white-only elections in 1989 also chose not to run.


Results


National Assembly

The 400 members of the
National Assembly In politics, a national assembly is either a unicameral legislature, the lower house of a bicameral legislature, or both houses of a bicameral legislature together. In the English language it generally means "an assembly composed of the repr ...
were chosen from
party lists An electoral list is a grouping of candidates for election, usually found in proportional or mixed electoral systems, but also in some plurality electoral systems. An electoral list can be registered by a political party (a party list) or can c ...
in proportion to each party's share of the national ballot.


Senate

The 90 members of the
Senate A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...
were chosen, 10 from each province, by the newly elected provincial legislatures. Each province's Senate seats were allocated in proportion to the parties' representation in the provincial legislature. In 1997, on the adoption of the final Constitution, the Senate became the
National Council of Provinces The National Council of Provinces (NCOP) is the upper house of the Parliament of South Africa under the post-apartheid constitution of South Africa, constitution which came into full effect in 1997. It replaced the former Senate of South Africa# ...
; its political makeup remained the same, but members were divided into permanent and special delegates, as described in the following table.


Provincial legislature results

Members of the provincial legislatures were elected from party lists in proportion to each party's share of the provincial ballot.


Eastern Cape


Free State


Gauteng


KwaZulu/Natal


Mpumalanga


North-West


Northern Cape


Limpopo


Western Cape


Legacy

Following the elections, 27 April subsequently became a national public holiday, Freedom Day. In a '' Sunday Independent'' article on the 20th anniversary of the election, Steven Friedman, who headed the IEC's information analysis department during the
election An election is a formal group decision-making process whereby a population chooses an individual or multiple individuals to hold Public administration, public office. Elections have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative d ...
, stated that the lack of a voters roll made verifying the results of the election difficult, and there were widespread accusations of cheating. Friedman characterised the election as a "technical disaster but a political triumph", and intimated that the final results were as a result of a negotiated compromise, rather than being an accurate count of the votes cast, stating that it was impossible to produce an accurate result under the circumstances that the election was held. He wrote that he believed that the result of the election, which gave KwaZulu-Natal to the IFP; gave the National Party 20% of the vote share, and a Deputy President position; and held the ANC back from the two-thirds majority with the ability to unilaterally write the final constitution, helped prevent a civil war.


References


External links

*US Department of the Army, ''South Africa Country Study'',
The 1994 Elections

IEC results for 1994 election
{{Political history of South Africa
South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the Southern Africa, southernmost country in Africa. Its Provinces of South Africa, nine provinces are bounded to the south by of coastline that stretches along the Atlantic O ...
Democratization General elections in South Africa
South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the Southern Africa, southernmost country in Africa. Its Provinces of South Africa, nine provinces are bounded to the south by of coastline that stretches along the Atlantic O ...
Nelson Mandela