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Skin temperature is the temperature of the outermost surface of the body. Normal human skin temperature on the trunk of the body varies between 33.5 and 36.9 °C (92.3 and 98.4 °F), though the skin's temperature is lower over protruding parts, like the nose, and higher over muscles and active organs. Recording skin temperature presents extensive difficulties. Although it is not a clear indicator of internal body temperature, skin temperature is significant in assessing the healthy function of skin. Some experts believe the
physiological Physiology (; ) is the science, scientific study of function (biology), functions and mechanism (biology), mechanisms in a life, living system. As a branches of science, subdiscipline of biology, physiology focuses on how organisms, organ syst ...
significance of
skin Skin is the layer of usually soft, flexible outer tissue covering the body of a vertebrate animal, with three main functions: protection, regulation, and sensation. Other animal coverings, such as the arthropod exoskeleton, have different ...
temperature has been overlooked, because clinical analysis has favoured measuring temperatures of the
mouth A mouth also referred to as the oral is the body orifice through which many animals ingest food and animal communication#Auditory, vocalize. The body cavity immediately behind the mouth opening, known as the oral cavity (or in Latin), is also t ...
,
armpit The axilla (: axillae or axillas; also known as the armpit, underarm or oxter) is the area on the human body directly under the shoulder joint. It includes the axillary space, an anatomical space within the shoulder girdle between the arm an ...
, and/or
rectum The rectum (: rectums or recta) is the final straight portion of the large intestine in humans and some other mammals, and the gut in others. Before expulsion through the anus or cloaca, the rectum stores the feces temporarily. The adult ...
. Temperatures of these parts typically are consistent with internal body temperature. Patterns in skin temperature often provide crucial
diagnostic Diagnosis (: diagnoses) is the identification of the nature and cause of a certain phenomenon. Diagnosis is used in a lot of different academic discipline, disciplines, with variations in the use of logic, analytics, and experience, to determine " ...
data on pathological conditions, ranging from locomotion to vascular diseases. Such information can prove significant to determination of subsequent therapeutic treatments.


Background and interactions

The three primary functions performed by skin are protection, regulation and
sensation Sensation (psychology) refers to the processing of the senses by the sensory system. Sensation or sensations may also refer to: In arts and entertainment In literature *Sensation (fiction), a fiction writing mode *Sensation novel, a British ...
. Interactions between skin and temperature occur constantly in relation to each of these functions and often hold considerable
medical Medicine is the science and Praxis (process), practice of caring for patients, managing the Medical diagnosis, diagnosis, prognosis, Preventive medicine, prevention, therapy, treatment, Palliative care, palliation of their injury or disease, ...
and
physiological Physiology (; ) is the science, scientific study of function (biology), functions and mechanism (biology), mechanisms in a life, living system. As a branches of science, subdiscipline of biology, physiology focuses on how organisms, organ syst ...
significance. The skin is composed of three main layers, the
epidermis The epidermis is the outermost of the three layers that comprise the skin, the inner layers being the dermis and Subcutaneous tissue, hypodermis. The epidermal layer provides a barrier to infection from environmental pathogens and regulates the ...
,
dermis The dermis or corium is a layer of skin between the epidermis (skin), epidermis (with which it makes up the cutis (anatomy), cutis) and subcutaneous tissues, that primarily consists of dense irregular connective tissue and cushions the body from s ...
and
hypodermis The subcutaneous tissue (), also called the hypodermis, hypoderm (), subcutis, or superficial fascia, is the lowermost layer of the integumentary system in vertebrates. The types of cells found in the layer are fibroblasts, adipose cells, and ...
, and contains a variety of cells, receptors and junctions which enable performance of a multitude of functions. The capacity of our skin to cope under a range of conditions and at various tissue temperatures, whilst simultaneously delivering these functions, attests to the resilience of the organ. There are three important aspects of the relationship between skin and temperature: # Thermal sensations can be detected and communicated from localised sensory regions of the skin. # Skin acts as both a medium and means for delivering mechanisms of thermoregulation, including insulation, sweating and control of blood flow. # Skin tissue itself is subject to a maintaining function within a range of tissue temperatures (skin temperature), which are the result of several factors including heat loss from subcutaneous tissues via
radiation In physics, radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space or a material medium. This includes: * ''electromagnetic radiation'' consisting of photons, such as radio waves, microwaves, infr ...
, conduction and
vaporisation Vaporization (or vapo(u)risation) of an element or compound is a phase transition from the liquid phase to vapor. There are two types of vaporization: evaporation and boiling. Evaporation is a surface phenomenon, whereas boiling is a bulk phenomen ...
of water. Temperature measurement (
thermometry Temperature measurement (also known as thermometry) describes the process of measuring a current temperature for immediate or later evaluation. Datasets consisting of repeated standardized measurements can be used to assess temperature trends. ...
) of the skin surface is a job that can be performed by several technologies. Key types of skin-surface thermometers include
infrared Infrared (IR; sometimes called infrared light) is electromagnetic radiation (EMR) with wavelengths longer than that of visible light but shorter than microwaves. The infrared spectral band begins with the waves that are just longer than those ...
thermometer A thermometer is a device that measures temperature (the hotness or coldness of an object) or temperature gradient (the rates of change of temperature in space). A thermometer has two important elements: (1) a temperature sensor (e.g. the bulb ...
s and
thermistor A thermistor is a semiconductor type of resistor in which the resistance is strongly dependent on temperature. The word ''thermistor'' is a portmanteau of ''thermal'' and ''resistor''. The varying resistance with temperature allows these devices ...
s. The performances of these instruments are both highly valid and reliable, and in essence, are equal for purposes of clinical
electrodiagnostic Electrodiagnosis (EDX) is a method of medical diagnosis that obtains information about diseases by passively recording the electrical activity of body parts (that is, their natural electrophysiology) or by measuring their response to external ele ...
readings. However,
thermistor A thermistor is a semiconductor type of resistor in which the resistance is strongly dependent on temperature. The word ''thermistor'' is a portmanteau of ''thermal'' and ''resistor''. The varying resistance with temperature allows these devices ...
s have been found to provide greater responsiveness and sensitivity in readings, whilst the infrared thermometers provide greater convenience in terms of speed and manoeuvrability. In practice, the temperature gauged by thermometry is dependent on specific setup conditions, and as such requires consideration of key variables.


Factors influencing skin temperature

Skin Skin is the layer of usually soft, flexible outer tissue covering the body of a vertebrate animal, with three main functions: protection, regulation, and sensation. Other animal coverings, such as the arthropod exoskeleton, have different ...
is the largest of the human body's
organs In a multicellular organism, an organ is a collection of tissues joined in a structural unit to serve a common function. In the hierarchy of life, an organ lies between tissue and an organ system. Tissues are formed from same type cells to a ...
, making up approximately 15-16% of total adult body weight. The surface of the organ exhibits significant regional temperature variation and often survives thermal extremities that would prove damaging to internal organs. Surface skin temperature in humans varies alongside ambient temperature, internal temperature and conditions affecting both the skin and underlying structures. Consequently, a uniform temperature is not typically maintained by
skin Skin is the layer of usually soft, flexible outer tissue covering the body of a vertebrate animal, with three main functions: protection, regulation, and sensation. Other animal coverings, such as the arthropod exoskeleton, have different ...
as a whole, as demonstrated by inconsistencies between different regions of the body even in spite of measurements taken under various external conditions. Lower temperatures are characteristically observed in proximity to
superficial vein Superficial veins are veins that are close to the surface of the body, as opposed to deep veins, which are far from the surface. Superficial veins are not paired with an artery, unlike the deep veins, which are typically associated with an art ...
s, relative to superficial arteries, and over protruding body parts including the
toe Toes are the digits of the foot of a tetrapod. Animal species such as cats that walk on their toes are described as being ''digitigrade''. Humans, and other animals that walk on the soles of their feet, are described as being ''plantigrade''; ...
s,
finger A finger is a prominent digit (anatomy), digit on the forelimbs of most tetrapod vertebrate animals, especially those with prehensile extremities (i.e. hands) such as humans and other primates. Most tetrapods have five digits (dactyly, pentadact ...
s,
ear In vertebrates, an ear is the organ that enables hearing and (in mammals) body balance using the vestibular system. In humans, the ear is described as having three parts: the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear. The outer ear co ...
s and nose. Meanwhile, skin surface temperature has been observed to be higher over active organs rather than those at rest, as well as over
muscle Muscle is a soft tissue, one of the four basic types of animal tissue. There are three types of muscle tissue in vertebrates: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle. Muscle tissue gives skeletal muscles the ability to muscle contra ...
s rather than
tendon A tendon or sinew is a tough band of fibrous connective tissue, dense fibrous connective tissue that connects skeletal muscle, muscle to bone. It sends the mechanical forces of muscle contraction to the skeletal system, while withstanding tensi ...
s or
bone A bone is a rigid organ that constitutes part of the skeleton in most vertebrate animals. Bones protect the various other organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells, store minerals, provide structure and support for the body, ...
s. Other notable influences on skin surface temperature include instances of heat stress (in which significant portions of
cardiac output In cardiac physiology, cardiac output (CO), also known as heart output and often denoted by the symbols Q, \dot Q, or \dot Q_ , edited by Catherine E. Williamson, Phillip Bennett is the volumetric flow rate of the heart's pumping output: tha ...
are directed to the skin), lowered skinfold thickness (contributes to significantly greater surface temperature variation during exercise) and local thermal control of cutaneous blood vessels (local heating may prompt vasodilation whilst local cooling decreases blood flow to the skin).


Thermoregulation

Skin temperature is a crucial aspect of human physiology and often plays a significant role in affecting thermoregulatory processes. Regulation of skin blood flow is crucial to homeothermy. Sympathetic control of blood flow to the skin involves the system of noradrenergic
vasoconstriction Vasoconstriction is the narrowing of the blood vessels resulting from contraction of the muscular wall of the vessels, in particular the large arteries and small arterioles. The process is the opposite of vasodilation, the widening of blood vesse ...
as well as an active sympathetic system of vasodilation. In certain cases of hyperthermia, skin vasodilation has permitted blood flow rates of skin to reach volumes of six to eight litres per minute. Skin contains an array of
thermoreceptor A thermoreceptor is a non-specialised sense Cutaneous receptor, receptor, or more accurately the receptive portion of a sensory neuron, that codes absolute and relative changes in temperature, primarily within the innocuous range. In the mammalian ...
s, which do not respond to the absolute ambient temperature, but rather to the rate of temperature change, where heat is exchanged between skin and the surrounding environment. The location of these thermoreceptors is not exclusively near to the surface of the skin, some thermoreceptors are instead situated deeper in the organ, located nearer to subcutaneous
adipose tissue Adipose tissue (also known as body fat or simply fat) is a loose connective tissue composed mostly of adipocytes. It also contains the stromal vascular fraction (SVF) of cells including preadipocytes, fibroblasts, Blood vessel, vascular endothel ...
. This discovery was supported by comparison of changes in deep skin temperature to changes in surface skin temperature. Induced changes to skin temperature in different layers of the skin were pivotal to determining thermoreceptor density and discriminating between these regions. When experiencing cold conditions, bumps develop around
hair Hair is a protein filament that grows from follicles found in the dermis. Hair is one of the defining characteristics of mammals. The human body, apart from areas of glabrous skin, is covered in follicles which produce thick terminal and ...
follicles (also known as goosebumps or goose pimples). These bumps serve to facilitate the pilo-erection of hairs or "standing on end", essentially perpendicular to the skin surface. The mechanism has provided an evolutionary advantage to fur-bearing animals in insulation of skin temperature, but it is not so helpful in humans who typically have sparse hair coverage over the majority of their skin. The mechanism provides little insulation and thus plays an insignificant role in thermoregulatory processes in
homo sapiens Humans (''Homo sapiens'') or modern humans are the most common and widespread species of primate, and the last surviving species of the genus ''Homo''. They are Hominidae, great apes characterized by their Prehistory of nakedness and clothing ...
. When ambient temperature is high, cutaneous blood flow is increased (vasodilation), facilitating the transfer of internal body heat to the skin.
Evaporation Evaporation is a type of vaporization that occurs on the Interface (chemistry), surface of a liquid as it changes into the gas phase. A high concentration of the evaporating substance in the surrounding gas significantly slows down evapora ...
and convection of sweat cause a loss of body heat from the skin surface to the environment, providing an effective means for lowering
body temperature Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within certain boundaries, even when the surrounding temperature is very different. A thermoconforming organism, by contrast, simply adopts the surrounding temperature ...
. Skin temperature also plays an important role in controlling cooling when exposed to high ambient temperatures. At a given core temperature, higher skin temperature improves the sweat rate, whilst cooler skin temperature inhibits sweat rate. The preoptic nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus acts as the regulatory centre for the body's heat loss. The
hypothalamus The hypothalamus (: hypothalami; ) is a small part of the vertebrate brain that contains a number of nucleus (neuroanatomy), nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions is to link the nervous system to the endocrin ...
sends out nerve impulses, activating the relevant aforementioned mechanisms of vasodilation, vasoconstriction and/or
sweating Perspiration, also known as sweat, is the fluid secreted by sweat glands in the skin of mammals. Two types of sweat glands can be found in humans: eccrine glands and apocrine glands. The eccrine sweat glands are distributed over much of the ...
when body temperature is detected above or below the set-point temperature (~37 °C) in the hypothalamus.


Clinical implications

A number of
medical Medicine is the science and Praxis (process), practice of caring for patients, managing the Medical diagnosis, diagnosis, prognosis, Preventive medicine, prevention, therapy, treatment, Palliative care, palliation of their injury or disease, ...
conditions affect skin temperature in humans and may prove harmful or fatal to individuals suffering from such conditions when the function of skin is impaired. Additionally, skin temperature has important clinical implications and may also appear as a
symptom Signs and symptoms are diagnostic indications of an illness, injury, or condition. Signs are objective and externally observable; symptoms are a person's reported subjective experiences. A sign for example may be a higher or lower temperature ...
for a given condition.


Cryotherapy

Cryotherapy Cryotherapy, sometimes known as cold therapy, is the local or general use of low temperatures in medical therapy. Cryotherapy can be used in many ways, including whole body exposure for therapeutic health benefits or may be used locally to treat ...
is an established means for treatment of
soft tissue Soft tissue connective tissue, connects and surrounds or supports internal organs and bones, and includes muscle, tendons, ligaments, Adipose tissue, fat, fibrous tissue, Lymphatic vessel, lymph and blood vessels, fasciae, and synovial membranes.� ...
injuries, spraining and soreness, where skin is typically cooled at the site of distress. In cases of internal injuries, skin acts as a medium of heat transfer via external application of cryotherapies. Albeit the technique is not grounded in sufficient clinical study, the treatment option is still commonly practised all over the world. Common modalities of cryotherapy often include administration of ice packs or frozen peas to the affected area, or even immersion in ice baths. Between methods of applying frozen gel packs and frozen peas, frozen gel packs have been observed to insufficiently cool skin. Frozen peas, on the other hand, have been observed to produce skin temperatures sufficient to induce localized skin analgesia (a dulling of pain), effectively reducing metabolic
enzyme An enzyme () is a protein that acts as a biological catalyst by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrate (chemistry), substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different mol ...
activity and velocity of nervous conduction to clinically stable levels. Beyond injury management, cryotherapy has notable
surgical Surgery is a medical specialty that uses manual and instrumental techniques to diagnose or treat pathological conditions (e.g., trauma, disease, injury, malignancy), to alter bodily functions (e.g., malabsorption created by bariatric surgery ...
applications (referred to as cryosurgery), in which extremely cool temperatures produced by
liquid nitrogen Liquid nitrogen (LN2) is nitrogen in a liquid state at cryogenics, low temperature. Liquid nitrogen has a boiling point of about . It is produced industrially by fractional distillation of liquid air. It is a colorless, mobile liquid whose vis ...
and
argon Argon is a chemical element; it has symbol Ar and atomic number 18. It is in group 18 of the periodic table and is a noble gas. Argon is the third most abundant gas in Earth's atmosphere, at 0.934% (9340 ppmv). It is more than twice as abu ...
gas are targeted towards malignant tumours in efforts to damage and destroy such tissue. In the skin, external
lesion A lesion is any damage or abnormal change in the tissue of an organism, usually caused by injury or diseases. The term ''Lesion'' is derived from the Latin meaning "injury". Lesions may occur in both plants and animals. Types There is no de ...
s and skin cancers are treated by means of liquid nitrogen, which is applied directly to cancerous cells, effectively reducing the skin temperature in such regions to destructive levels, where cell function can longer be maintained.


Hypothermia (condition & symptom)

Hypothermia Hypothermia is defined as a body core temperature below in humans. Symptoms depend on the temperature. In mild hypothermia, there is shivering and mental confusion. In moderate hypothermia, shivering stops and confusion increases. In severe ...
is defined as having a core body temperature below 35 °C (or 95 °F). Under 35 °C, the body loses more heat than it generates, resulting in fatality in severe cases. Babies suffering from hypothermia will experience low skin temperatures despite appearing healthy otherwise. Heat loss from the skin to the external environment is a significant factor contributing to acute hypothermia. As the barrier between the human body's internal organs and contents, skin undoubtedly plays the pivotal role in heat exchange between the body's internals and the external environment. Internal body heat is released to the environment at a greater rate with low skin temperature, as heat follows temperature gradients from regions of high temperature (the body's internals) to another location of lower temperature, as described by the
second law of thermodynamics The second law of thermodynamics is a physical law based on Universal (metaphysics), universal empirical observation concerning heat and Energy transformation, energy interconversions. A simple statement of the law is that heat always flows spont ...
.


Therapeutic hypothermia

Hypothermia also has a significant therapeutic role, the technique of therapeutic hypothermia involves deliberate reduction of body temperature to a level around 32° - 34 °C (89.6° – 93.2 °F). The technique has applications in patients suffering from
cardiac arrest Cardiac arrest (also known as sudden cardiac arrest CA is when the heart suddenly and unexpectedly stops beating. When the heart stops beating, blood cannot properly Circulatory system, circulate around the body and the blood flow to the ...
who remain unconscious following return of spontaneous circulation. It is important to note that induced mild hypothermia, between temperatures of 33 °C and 36 °C is effective whilst safer than moderate hypothermia, reducing body temperature to the range between 28 °C and 32 °C. The latter temperature range brings with it risks of
arrhythmias Arrhythmias, also known as cardiac arrhythmias, are irregularities in the heartbeat, including when it is too fast or too slow. Essentially, this is anything but normal sinus rhythm. A resting heart rate that is too fast – above 100 beats ...
,
ventricular fibrillation Ventricular fibrillation (V-fib or VF) is an abnormal heart rhythm in which the Ventricle (heart), ventricles of the heart Fibrillation, quiver. It is due to disorganized electrical conduction system of the heart, electrical activity. Ventricula ...
as well as possible risks of
coagulopathy Coagulopathy (also called a bleeding disorder) is a condition in which the blood's ability to coagulate (form clots) is impaired. This condition can cause a tendency toward prolonged or excessive bleeding ( bleeding diathesis), which may occur s ...
and
infection An infection is the invasion of tissue (biology), tissues by pathogens, their multiplication, and the reaction of host (biology), host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce. An infectious disease, also known as a transmis ...
. Furthermore, the timing of hypothermia treatments are a crucial consideration to be made when dealing with patients suffering from cardiac arrest. Mild hypothermia ought to begin directly following
resuscitation Resuscitation is the process of correcting physiological disorders (such as lack of breathing or heartbeat) in an Acute (medicine), acutely ill patient. It is an important part of intensive care medicine, anesthesiology, trauma surgery and emerg ...
of the patient for maximum effectiveness, though there is some evidence of the treatment proving effective hours after cardiac arrest in animal models.


Hyperthermia (condition & symptom)

Hyperthermia Hyperthermia, also known as overheating, is a condition in which an individual's body temperature is elevated beyond normal due to failed thermoregulation. The person's body produces or absorbs more heat than it dissipates. When extreme te ...
is defined as the condition where an individual's body temperature is elevated beyond normal parameters as a result of the failure of thermoregulatory processes. Hyperthermia is a common symptom of conditions such as heat stroke, where it manifests as hot, dry skin or heavy perspiration. Heat stroke itself can be devastating. Irreversible long term brain injury occurs in around one in five people affected by the condition.


Therapeutic hyperthermia

In the field of
oncology Oncology is a branch of medicine that deals with the study, treatment, diagnosis, and prevention of cancer. A medical professional who practices oncology is an ''oncologist''. The name's Etymology, etymological origin is the Greek word ὄγ ...
, ‘hyperthermia’ refers to treatment of malignant diseases by administration of heat to the body to a given location. Hyperthermia is often applied in combination with established treatment modalities for tumor treatment. Temperatures above 40 °C are often favourable conditions for receptiveness to chemotherapy and radiotherapy.


Raynaud’s phenomenon

Raynaud's phenomenon Raynaud syndrome, also known as Raynaud's phenomenon, is a medical condition in which the spasm of small arteries causes episodes of reduced blood flow to end arterioles. Typically the fingers, and, less commonly, the toes, are involved. Rare ...
(also known as Raynaud's disease or syndrome) is an important condition affecting skin temperature of many around the globe. Raynaud's phenomenon is the exaggerated response of cutaneous circulation to exposure to cold ambient temperatures. ‘Raynaud attacks’, which can begin in parts of the body and spread, effectively lowering skin temperature to dangerous levels in short periods. The consequences of these attacks can be severe, potentially causing
Gangrene Gangrene is a type of tissue death caused by a lack of blood supply. Symptoms may include a change in skin color to red or black, numbness, swelling, pain, skin breakdown, and coolness. The feet and hands are most commonly affected. If the ga ...
, a destructive implication of abnormal skin temperature.


Other clinical implications

Impaired vasodilation of cutaneous blood vessels may occur as part of
type 2 diabetes Type 2 diabetes (T2D), formerly known as adult-onset diabetes, is a form of diabetes mellitus that is characterized by high blood sugar, insulin resistance, and relative lack of insulin. Common symptoms include increased thirst, frequent ...
. Where ambient temperatures are high, impaired
cutaneous Skin is the layer of usually soft, flexible outer tissue covering the body of a vertebrate animal, with three main functions: protection, regulation, and sensation. Other animal coverings, such as the arthropod exoskeleton, have different d ...
vascular Vascular can refer to: * blood vessels, the vascular system in animals * vascular tissue Vascular tissue is a complex transporting tissue, formed of more than one cell type, found in vascular plants. The primary components of vascular tissue ...
control often involves consequences including incidents of heat exhaustion and heat stroke due to heat transfer. Such implications arise from heat transfer, from the environment to the skin, causing skin temperature to increase. Subsequently, the blood travelling through the dilated skin vessels is heated during circulation. Delivery of the heat to subcutaneous regions of the body is facilitated by the body's impaired vasodilation. Skin temperature may also be an indicator of the presence of cancer. Widespread methods for detection of
cancer Cancer is a group of diseases involving Cell growth#Disorders, abnormal cell growth with the potential to Invasion (cancer), invade or Metastasis, spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread. Po ...
involve identification of non-
neuron A neuron (American English), neurone (British English), or nerve cell, is an membrane potential#Cell excitability, excitable cell (biology), cell that fires electric signals called action potentials across a neural network (biology), neural net ...
al thermoregulation of blood
perfusion Perfusion is the passage of fluid through the circulatory system or lymphatic system to an organ (anatomy), organ or a tissue (biology), tissue, usually referring to the delivery of blood to a capillary bed in tissue. Perfusion may also refer t ...
as well as periodic alterations to, or aberrant
oscillation Oscillation is the repetitive or periodic variation, typically in time, of some measure about a central value (often a point of equilibrium) or between two or more different states. Familiar examples of oscillation include a swinging pendulum ...
s in, the spatial
homogeneity Homogeneity and heterogeneity are concepts relating to the Uniformity (chemistry), uniformity of a Chemical substance, substance, process or image. A homogeneous feature is uniform in composition or character (i.e., color, shape, size, weight, ...
of skin temperature. This is because sites of tumour growth are often associated with increased immune response causing inflammation, which effectively increases skin temperature, departing from the spatial homogeneity of skin temperature in the breasts. In screening for breast cancer, measurement of skin temperature (particularly instances of hyperthermia) hold great significance. Accordingly, fluctuations in skin temperature over large portions of the breasts are often investigated in hopes of revealing sites of tumour growth. now abandoned. In
thermography Infrared thermography (IRT), thermal video or thermal imaging, is a process where a thermal camera captures and creates an image of an object by using infrared radiation emitted from the object in a process, which are examples of infrared im ...
, the skin temperature of each breast is monitored utilising techniques such as
infrared imaging Infrared thermography (IRT), thermal video or thermal imaging, is a process where a thermal camera captures and creates an image of an object by using infrared radiation emitted from the object in a process, which are examples of infrared im ...
and liquid crystal contact thermography (LCCT).


References


External links

{{DEFAULTSORT:Skin Conductance Skin physiology