Sino-Soviet Treaty Of Friendship, Alliance And Mutual Assistance
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The Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance ( Russian: Советско-китайский договор о дружбе, союзе и взаимной помощи, ), or Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance for short, was a bilateral treaty of alliance, collective security, aid and cooperation concluded between the
People's Republic of China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on February 14, 1950. It superseded the previous Sino-Soviet treaty signed by the Kuomintang government. This treaty was signed against the background of the establishment of China's communist regime and the
Cold War The Cold War was a period of global Geopolitics, geopolitical rivalry between the United States (US) and the Soviet Union (USSR) and their respective allies, the capitalist Western Bloc and communist Eastern Bloc, which lasted from 1947 unt ...
confrontation, resulting directly from Mao's foreign policy directive of " leaning to one side" (siding with the socialist camp) and
Joseph Stalin Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (born Dzhugashvili; 5 March 1953) was a Soviet politician and revolutionary who led the Soviet Union from 1924 until Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin, his death in 1953. He held power as General Secret ...
's strategic and ideological considerations pertaining to the extension of Soviet influence in East Asia.
Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party The chairman of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party ( zh, s=中国共产党中央委员会主席, p=Zhōngguó Gòngchǎndǎng Zhōngyāng Wěiyuánhuì Zhǔxí) was the party leader, leader of the Chinese Communist Party. The ...
Mao Zedong Mao Zedong pronounced ; traditionally Romanization of Chinese, romanised as Mao Tse-tung. (26December 18939September 1976) was a Chinese politician, revolutionary, and political theorist who founded the People's Republic of China (PRC) in ...
travelled to the Soviet Union to sign the treaty, one of only two times in his life that he left China. The treaty laid the groundwork for Sino-Soviet cooperation and partnership. It provided China with security guarantees, and increased the scope for economic cooperation between the two countries. The treaty did not however, prevent relations between Beijing and Moscow from drastically deteriorating in the late 1950s to the early 1960s, during the
Sino-Soviet split The Sino-Soviet split was the gradual worsening of relations between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) during the Cold War. This was primarily caused by divergences that arose from their ...
. After the expiration of the treaty in 1979,
Deng Xiaoping Deng Xiaoping also Romanization of Chinese, romanised as Teng Hsiao-p'ing; born Xiansheng (). (22 August 190419 February 1997) was a Chinese statesman, revolutionary, and political theorist who served as the paramount leader of the People's R ...
wanted China not to negotiate with the Soviets unless they agreed to China's demands such as withdrawing from
Afghanistan Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. It is bordered by Pakistan to the Durand Line, east and south, Iran to the Afghanistan–Iran borde ...
, removing their troops from
Mongolia Mongolia is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south and southeast. It covers an area of , with a population of 3.5 million, making it the world's List of countries and dependencies by po ...
and the Sino-Soviet border, and ceasing their support of the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia. The expiration of the treaty allowed China to attack
Vietnam Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about and a population of over 100 million, making it the world's List of countries and depende ...
, a Soviet ally, in the Third Indochina War as a response to Vietnam's invasion of
Cambodia Cambodia, officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. It is bordered by Thailand to the northwest, Laos to the north, and Vietnam to the east, and has a coastline ...
since the treaty had prevented China from attacking Soviet allies.


Background


Yalta Agreement

At the end of
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
,
Joseph Stalin Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (born Dzhugashvili; 5 March 1953) was a Soviet politician and revolutionary who led the Soviet Union from 1924 until Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin, his death in 1953. He held power as General Secret ...
identified two strategic objectives for the
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
in the
Far East The Far East is the geographical region that encompasses the easternmost portion of the Asian continent, including North Asia, North, East Asia, East and Southeast Asia. South Asia is sometimes also included in the definition of the term. In mod ...
after the war: the independence of
Outer Mongolia Outer Mongolia was the name of a territory in the Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China from 1691 to 1911. It corresponds to the modern-day independent state of Mongolia and the Russian republic of Tuva. The historical region gained ''de facto'' ...
from
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
and restoration of the sphere of influence of Tsarist Russia in Northeast China to ensure its geopolitical territorial security. To this end, Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill reached an agreement on February 11, 1945, at the
Yalta Conference The Yalta Conference (), held 4–11 February 1945, was the World War II meeting of the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union to discuss the postwar reorganization of Germany and Europe. The three sta ...
in which the Soviet Union recognized the
Kuomintang The Kuomintang (KMT) is a major political party in the Republic of China (Taiwan). It was the one party state, sole ruling party of the country Republic of China (1912-1949), during its rule from 1927 to 1949 in Mainland China until Retreat ...
(KMT) government as the legitimate government of China, regardless of the
Chinese Communist Party The Communist Party of China (CPC), also translated into English as Chinese Communist Party (CCP), is the founding and One-party state, sole ruling party of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Founded in 1921, the CCP emerged victorious in the ...
(CCP). For the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
, it hoped that the Soviet Union would enter the war against
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
as soon as possible and support the KMT as the only legal government of China. In return, the United States would help the Soviet Union persuade the KMT to recognize the legal regime of the Soviet Union in Outer Mongolia. At that time, the relations between the Kuomintang and the CCP were very tense, and Chiang Kai-shek always tended to seek help from the United States and the Soviet Union in dealing with the conflict with the CCP. Thus, although no representative from either party came to the meeting at
Yalta Yalta (: ) is a resort town, resort city on the south coast of the Crimean Peninsula surrounded by the Black Sea. It serves as the administrative center of Yalta Municipality, one of the regions within Crimea. Yalta, along with the rest of Crime ...
, Roosevelt still made it clear that every treaty that included China's problems needed Chiang's approval in the agreement because of his friendship with the KMT. After that, in order to force the Chinese Nationalist government to accept Soviet terms, the
Soviet Red Army The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army, often shortened to the Red Army, was the army and air force of the Russian Soviet Republic and, from 1922, the Soviet Union. The army was established in January 1918 by a decree of the Council of Peop ...
had entered northeast China in large numbers, and the KMT government led by Chiang was forced to agree on the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance.


Converging interests

Later, after the victory of the CCP in the
Chinese Civil War The Chinese Civil War was fought between the Kuomintang-led Nationalist government, government of the Republic of China (1912–1949), Republic of China and the forces of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Armed conflict continued intermitt ...
, fundamentally changed the pattern of
Asia Asia ( , ) is the largest continent in the world by both land area and population. It covers an area of more than 44 million square kilometres, about 30% of Earth's total land area and 8% of Earth's total surface area. The continent, which ...
and the
Far East The Far East is the geographical region that encompasses the easternmost portion of the Asian continent, including North Asia, North, East Asia, East and Southeast Asia. South Asia is sometimes also included in the definition of the term. In mod ...
forcing the Soviet Union to reassess and adjust its policy towards China. The demands of China and the Soviet Union were common and mutual in some respects. To enhance the strength of the communist bloc against the US-led
capitalist Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their use for the purpose of obtaining profit. This socioeconomic system has developed historically through several stages and is defined by ...
world in the international system of the
Cold War The Cold War was a period of global Geopolitics, geopolitical rivalry between the United States (US) and the Soviet Union (USSR) and their respective allies, the capitalist Western Bloc and communist Eastern Bloc, which lasted from 1947 unt ...
, Stalin saw China under the leadership of CCP as a viable partner in checking US encroachment on the Soviet sphere of influence in
East Asia East Asia is a geocultural region of Asia. It includes China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan, plus two special administrative regions of China, Hong Kong and Macau. The economies of Economy of China, China, Economy of Ja ...
. The CCP also needed the Soviet Union's support and assistance in its struggle to consolidate its rule and curb the attempts of the United States to overthrow the communist regime. Although the CCP won the final victory, many problems were left by the war. Therefore, China needed assistance from the Soviet Union in reconstruction, economic development and industrial production. Moreover, the ideological opposition and hostility between China and the US-led western camp ruled out the possibility of receiving aid from the west necessitating, the establishment of a stable and predictable diplomatic relationship with the Soviet Union.


Attitudes towards the implementation of the Treaty

However, the two parties' leaders had different views on the content and implementation of the treaty. Stalin hoped that the new treaty would remain under the framework of the Yalta agreement, which secured Soviet vested interests in
Northeast China Northeast China () is a geographical region of China, consisting officially of three provinces Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang. The heartland of the region is the Northeast China Plain, the largest plain in China with an area of over . The regi ...
. On the other hand, Mao was preoccupied with setting up China's independent foreign image and abolishing all the unequal treaties imposed by imperial powers. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, the settlement of the alliance treaty between China and the Soviet Union has become an urgent matter for Chinese leaders to conduct diplomatic activities and make decisions. Therefore, Mao's first consideration on diplomatic issues was to have a direct talk with Stalin and sign a new Sino-Soviet treaty.


Signing reasons

Having gone through the prolonged
Second Sino-Japanese War The Second Sino-Japanese War was fought between the Republic of China (1912–1949), Republic of China and the Empire of Japan between 1937 and 1945, following a period of war localized to Manchuria that started in 1931. It is considered part ...
and the civil war from 1945 to 1949, the newly established Communist regime inherited a devastated economy and volatile socio-political environment. The signing of the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance materialized the cooperative relationship between the CCP of China and the Soviet Union. For China, the aim was to secure Soviet economic assistance for domestic development and replace the 1945 Sino-Soviet Treaty signed between the KMT government and the Soviet Union.


Domestic situation of the PRC

Despite the successful military campaigns ousting KMT presence in the mainland, years of prolonged warfare left the communist regime with the devastated industrial base, part of which resulted from the heavy bombardment of the industrial heartland by the KMT
air force An air force in the broadest sense is the national military branch that primarily conducts aerial warfare. More specifically, it is the branch of a nation's armed services that is responsible for aerial warfare as distinct from an army aviati ...
in the later phase of the civil war. For example, between October 1949 and February 1950, the KMT Air Force carried out 26
airstrike An airstrike, air strike, or air raid is an offensive operation carried out by aircraft. Air strikes are delivered from aircraft such as blimps, balloons, fighter aircraft, attack aircraft, bombers, attack helicopters, and drones. The official d ...
s against military and industrial targets in the communist-controlled regions, among which February 6, 1950, bombardment of
Shanghai Shanghai, Shanghainese: , Standard Chinese pronunciation: is a direct-administered municipality and the most populous urban area in China. The city is located on the Chinese shoreline on the southern estuary of the Yangtze River, with the ...
was most effective, inflicting heavy damage on the local industries and brought production to a halt because of the paralyzed electricity grid. The leaders of the CCP well understood the situation they faced, namely, lacking not only financial assistance, equipment, and industrial plants but also competent specialist capable of directing, managing, and restarting the national economy and industrial production. Anastas Mikoyan, a Soviet diplomat and the politburo member of the
CPSU The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU),. Abbreviated in Russian as КПСС, ''KPSS''. at some points known as the Russian Communist Party (RCP), All-Union Communist Party and Bolshevik Party, and sometimes referred to as the Soviet ...
responsible for negotiation with Mao about the aid, reported that his Chinese comrades were politically sophisticated but had severely limited information about economic mechanisms and information.


Military concerns

The military occupation of Taiwan was given top priority during the later phase of the civil war and constituted the primary source of hostility between China and the US when communist victory seemed inevitable. However, a significant obstacle to seizing Taiwan was the lack or absence of functional air and naval force essential to any cross-strait military operation. Although Chiang Kai-shek had retreated to Taiwan by the time of the negotiation of the treaty, the KMT still maintained air and naval superiority over the PLA, which put the PLA in a disadvantageous position. A reflection of that was PLA's defeat in the Battle of Guningtou, where wooden boats of the CCP were met with well-equipped KMT armoured
warship A warship or combatant ship is a naval ship that is used for naval warfare. Usually they belong to the navy branch of the armed forces of a nation, though they have also been operated by individuals, cooperatives and corporations. As well as b ...
s, and landing troops had to fight without air cover. The lack of air force capable of interception led to frequent and unimpeded KMT airstrikes against industrial targets following the seizures of large cities by the CCP, which elevated the importance of Soviet support in building a national air force and
navy A navy, naval force, military maritime fleet, war navy, or maritime force is the military branch, branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated for naval warfare, naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake-borne, riverine, littoral z ...
. In the early stage of the negotiation,
Zhu De Zhu De; (1 December 1886 – 6 July 1976) was a Chinese general, military strategist, politician and revolutionary in the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Zhu was born into poverty in 1886 in Sichuan. He was adopted by a wealthy uncle at ...
proposed buying 100 aircraft, 100-200 helicopters 40-80 bombers, as well as training 1,000 Chinese pilots and 300 personnel at the Soviet Union. Mao also expressed his hope in Soviet air support for the planned attack on
Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia. The main geography of Taiwan, island of Taiwan, also known as ''Formosa'', lies between the East China Sea, East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocea ...
but was rejected by Stalin for it would give the US an excuse to intervene.


Leaning to One Side

In his "On the People's Democratic Dictatorship" published on July 1, 1949, Mao articulated the " leaning to one side" foreign policy directive, in which he framed a world divided between the confrontational Socialist and imperialist camps and that "sitting on the fence will not do, nor is there a third road." Thus, faced with the bleak situation and threats from both within and without, consolidating the communist rule under the Cold War framework of the mid-20th century Mao saw the necessity and benefits in firmly siding with the Soviet Union and joining the socialist camp. He perceived the cooperation within the socialist camp as goodwill and sincere assistance in countries' development in contrast to the
Marshall Plan The Marshall Plan (officially the European Recovery Program, ERP) was an American initiative enacted in 1948 to provide foreign aid to Western Europe. The United States transferred $13.3 billion (equivalent to $ in ) in economic recovery pr ...
, which Mao considered a pretense of exploitation and the US agenda to exert political influence into the recipient countries. For China, materializing rapid industrialization through economic assistance was one of the primary goals, which rendered the need for Soviet economic and technological assistance the driving force behind the 1950 treaty.


Ideology

When faced with the choice between the American-led
Western Bloc The Western Bloc, also known as the Capitalist Bloc, the Freedom Bloc, the Free Bloc, and the American Bloc, was an unofficial coalition of countries that were officially allied with the United States during the Cold War (1947–1991). While ...
and the Soviet-led
Eastern Bloc The Eastern Bloc, also known as the Communist Bloc (Combloc), the Socialist Bloc, the Workers Bloc, and the Soviet Bloc, was an unofficial coalition of communist states of Central and Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin America that were a ...
, Mao chose to side with the Soviet Union because of ideological proximity. In contrast to the Marshall Plan bearing "imperialist" and "interventionist" connotations, Soviet aid was framed as international support from the world proletariat revolutionary forces. The fraternal relationship between China and the Soviet Union embodied a socialist internationalism and coherent ideological framework which gave impetus to the signing of the treaty, and according to Stalin, China's enrollment "formed a strong, united socialist camp to confront the capitalist camp" and constituted a socialist international cooperation framework more genuine than the capitalist one.


Negotiation process


Prelude to negotiations

On December 6, Mao travelled by train to
Moscow Moscow is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Russia by population, largest city of Russia, standing on the Moskva (river), Moskva River in Central Russia. It has a population estimated at over 13 million residents with ...
, along with
Chen Boda Chen Boda (; 29 July 1904 – 20 September 1989), was a Chinese Communist journalist, professor and political theorist who rose to power as the chief interpreter of Maoism (or "Mao Zedong Thought") in the first 20 years of the People's Republi ...
, Mao's chief secretary for political and ideological affairs, Ye Siluo, Mao's private secretary for secret affairs; Wang Dongxing, who was responsible for Mao's security and   Shi Zhe, Mao's interpreter. The first official interaction between Mao and Stalin took place in the
Kremlin The Moscow Kremlin (also the Kremlin) is a fortified complex in Moscow, Russia. Located in the centre of the country's capital city, the Moscow Kremlin (fortification), Kremlin comprises five palaces, four cathedrals, and the enclosing Mosco ...
on the night of the 16th. Mao first claimed that the most important concern for China was securing peace. China needed three to five years of peace to restore the economy to pre-war standards and stabilize the country. The resolution of China's major issues depended heavily on the prospects for peace. Mao's concern resonated well with Stalin, who responded that there was no direct threat to China from foreign powers since
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
and
Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
were still recovering. Most Western countries, including the United States, were reluctant to wage another war. Stalin also claimed that if the two countries work together and maintain friendly relationships, they can guarantee peace for 20 to 25 years, or even longer. Hence, this view is consistent with the standpoint of the CCP Central Committee at that time.


Diverging views

Immediately following, Mao addressed his concerns towards the Treaty of Friendship and Alliance signed between the Chinese Nationalist government and the Soviet Union in August 1945, which
Liu Shaoqi Liu Shaoqi ( ; 24 November 189812 November 1969) was a Chinese revolutionary and politician. He was the chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress from 1954 to 1959, first-ranking Vice Chairman of the Chinese Communis ...
also raised in July 1949 prior to Mao's arrival. Therefore, the CCP attached great importance to this issue, and the conclusion of a new treaty with the Soviet Union was one of the main goals for Mao. On the other hand, Stalin preferred the existing treaty with the KMT to remain in force. Stalin argued that the agreement in the treaty was regulated by the Yalta agreement, such as the administration of the
Kuril Islands The Kuril Islands or Kurile Islands are a volcanic archipelago administered as part of Sakhalin Oblast in the Russian Far East. The islands stretch approximately northeast from Hokkaido in Japan to Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia, separating the ...
, Southern
Sakhalin Sakhalin ( rus, Сахали́н, p=səxɐˈlʲin) is an island in Northeast Asia. Its north coast lies off the southeastern coast of Khabarovsk Krai in Russia, while its southern tip lies north of the Japanese island of Hokkaido. An islan ...
, and Port Arthur. In other words, the conclusion of the treaty was approved by the United States and Britain, so changes in any points of the treaty would give the United States and Britain leverage to alter the points regarding the
Kuril Islands The Kuril Islands or Kurile Islands are a volcanic archipelago administered as part of Sakhalin Oblast in the Russian Far East. The islands stretch approximately northeast from Hokkaido in Japan to Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia, separating the ...
or Southern
Sakhalin Sakhalin ( rus, Сахали́н, p=səxɐˈlʲin) is an island in Northeast Asia. Its north coast lies off the southeastern coast of Khabarovsk Krai in Russia, while its southern tip lies north of the Japanese island of Hokkaido. An islan ...
, which were the Soviet Union's territorial gains made in Yalta. Regarding Mao's desire for a new treaty, Stalin addressed the possibility of formally retaining the existing treaty while changing it in practice. For instance, the Soviet Union still reserved the rights to station troops in Port Arthur, yet at the same time, withdrew the units in Port Arthur as the CCP had suggested. Mao responded euphemistically that it is necessary to consider the legality of the Yalta Conference; however, within Chinese society, the public believed that since the KMT was already defeated, the existing Treaty of Friendship and Alliance lost its purpose and significance. Stalin, in turn, claimed that the existing treaty would be altered eventually.


Turning point

Similar to the request for a new treaty, Mao also received other refusals from Stalin. One of them was the military aid to support the PLA for launching an attack on Taiwan. Stalin argued that military aid from the Soviet Union would give the United States an excuse to intervene. After the celebration of Stalin's 70th birthday, Mao further reinforced his position on concluding a new treaty, yet what he received were more refusals from Stalin. According to Mao himself, Mao tried to reach Stalin several times, but the
Kremlin The Moscow Kremlin (also the Kremlin) is a fortified complex in Moscow, Russia. Located in the centre of the country's capital city, the Moscow Kremlin (fortification), Kremlin comprises five palaces, four cathedrals, and the enclosing Mosco ...
told Mao that Stalin was not at home and tried to arrange Mao with Stalin's associates instead. Mao decided to keep waiting. With rumours of Mao being held by Stalin secretly spreading, the two parties finally agreed to act in accordance to address the rumours. They decided to invite Mao for an interview with Soviet press
TASS The Russian News Agency TASS, or simply TASS, is a Russian state-owned news agency founded in 1904. It is the largest Russian news agency and one of the largest news agencies worldwide. TASS is registered as a Federal State Unitary Enterpri ...
. The interview also marked a turning point in the discussion of the treaty with Mao.


Agreement reached

On January 2, 1950, Stalin finally agreed to initiate the talk with Mao to address the treaty issue. Mao presented three proposals: the conclusion of a new treaty, a publication of official announcements from the two countries claiming that the two parties have reached an agreement on issues regarding the previous treaty, and finally, a signing of the declaration of relationships between the two countries without the need of a new treaty. Mao certainly favoured the first proposal, which he argued would bring great benefits to both countries politically, particularly for confrontation with other imperialist powers. After the approval from the Soviet side, the two parties arranged
Zhou Enlai Zhou Enlai ( zh, s=周恩来, p=Zhōu Ēnlái, w=Chou1 Ên1-lai2; 5 March 1898 – 8 January 1976) was a Chinese statesman, diplomat, and revolutionary who served as the first Premier of the People's Republic of China from September 1954 unti ...
's arrival in
Moscow Moscow is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Russia by population, largest city of Russia, standing on the Moskva (river), Moskva River in Central Russia. It has a population estimated at over 13 million residents with ...
. Prime Minister Zhou Enlai arrived in Moscow with the Chinese negotiation delegation on January 20, 1950. After a series of preparations, the negotiation finally took place on the evening of January 22. The participants from the Soviet side were Stalin, Molotov, Malenkov, Mikoyan, Vyshinsky, and Fedorenko; Chinese participants included Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, Li Fuchun, Wang Jiaxiang,
Chen Boda Chen Boda (; 29 July 1904 – 20 September 1989), was a Chinese Communist journalist, professor and political theorist who rose to power as the chief interpreter of Maoism (or "Mao Zedong Thought") in the first 20 years of the People's Republi ...
, and Shi Zhe. The negotiation reached an agreement between both parties that the Treaty of Friendship and Alliance of August 14, 1945 needed to be replaced by a new treaty. The two sides also reached an agreement on the issues of Port Arthur, and Stalin agreed to withdraw troops from Port Arthur. However, the two parties did not settle on a complete agreement about the Chinese Changchun Railway (CCR). Although Stalin agreed to shorten the length of the CCR agreement of 1945, Stalin turned down China's request to pass the management of the railroad to China and increase the share of Chinese capital. The treaty draft was first delivered from the Soviet side to the Chinese side on January 23, 1950. Immediately, Zhou Enlai responded with a Chinese draft in the evening. The Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance of 1950 included the following terms: Prevention of Aggression, International Action for Peace and Security, Clause of Assistance, Prohibition of Alliances, Renunciation of Separate Negotiations with Japan, Clause of Consultation, and Economic and Cultural Cooperation and Mutual Assistance. Both parties agreed that the treaty's duration should remain for thirty years. The treaty, the agreements, and the notes were signed on February 14, 1950, in the Kremlin formally.


Terms of the treaty


General agreement

Article 1. Promise of
collective security Collective security is arrangement between states in which the institution accepts that an attack on one state is the concern of all and merits a collective response to threats by all. Collective security was a key principle underpinning the Lea ...
that treats an attack on one as an attack on both to prevent the revival of Japanese imperialism. The two sides were obliged to extend military and other forms of assistance when faced with aggression and war. The two contracting parties undertook to uphold principles of cooperation conducive to international peace and security. Article 2. The signatories should conclude a peace treaty with Japan in conjunction with other allied powers of WWII. Article 3. The signatories should not participate in coalition and alliance directed against the other. Article 4. Mutual consultation on major issues concerning the essential interest of the signing parties. Article 5. The two parties agreed to adhere to the principles of "equal rights, mutual interests, respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, and non-intervention," facilitation of close cooperation, rendering economic and industrial assistance and would strive for strengthening friendship between
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
and the
USSR The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
. Article 6. The treaty would be in effect for thirty years, and if no party voices objection to the treaty one year before expiration, the treaty should automatically be extended for another five years.


Changchun Railway, Port Arthur, and Dalian

Both sides agreed on a complete transfer of all the rights and associated properties of the Changchun Railway back to China free of charge until the conclusion of a peace treaty with Japan but no later than 1952. The Soviet Union would withdraw its troops from the jointly-used naval base at Port Arthur upon concluding a peace treaty with Japan, and the Chinese government would be responsible for the cost of construction and installation incurred by the Soviet Union since 1945. The Joint Sino-Soviet Military Commission with a post-rotation mechanism was to be established overseeing the military affairs until the transfer of ownership. The ownership of Port Dalian would be handed back to China along with the associated properties temporarily administered by the Soviet Union under a joint commission composed of representatives from both parties.


Soviet loan to China

A loan of $60 million a year and $300 million in total at the interest rate of 1 percent per year was granted to China starting from January 1950, in the form of railways, industrial infrastructure, equipment, and materials for reconstruction and recovery from the destruction of war.


Soviet specialists

Soviet specialists were sent to work in Chinese institutions, industries, organizations to assist and advise China's reconstruction, industrialization, and economic development with the fixed duration of work at one year, whose treatments were identical to Chinese technicians. The Chinese side is responsible for travel costs, expenditure, lodging, and wages of the Soviet experts, while the cost incurred by the abrupt recall of experts by the Soviet side falls on the Soviet Union.


Controversies around national interest

China covering a vast territory with rich natural resources endowments was strategically crucial for the Soviet Union. Therefore, the Soviet Union made a huge concession renouncing its vested interest in Northeast China as embodied in the return of the Chinese Changchun Railway, Port Arthur, and Dalian in order to reinforce the solidarity of the socialist camp in confrontation with the capitalist bloc and the defence of the Far East. The Sino-Soviet strategic partnership was a dilemma for Stalin. On the one hand, assisting and having a trusted socialist ally like China in East Asia would immensely tip the balance of power to the Soviet Union's favour and reinforce Soviet leadership in the communist world. On the other hand, Stalin feared that Mao would become a second Tito defying Soviet will after the recovery from the war. Although the $300 million was materialized in the end, the agreement came with much more stringent conditions than those signed between the Soviet Union and
Eastern Europe Eastern Europe is a subregion of the Europe, European continent. As a largely ambiguous term, it has a wide range of geopolitical, geographical, ethnic, cultural and socio-economic connotations. Its eastern boundary is marked by the Ural Mountain ...
an socialist countries. For example, the Soviet treaty concluded with Eastern European countries spoke in terms of "immediately giving all available military and other assistance". However, Stalin revised the aid agreement to "provide all possible economic assistance" and imposed more stringent conditions on the treatments of Soviet experts. Also, technological assistance regarding
nuclear weapon A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission (fission or atomic bomb) or a combination of fission and fusion reactions (thermonuclear weapon), producing a nuclear exp ...
s was held off until the
Khrushchev Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (– 11 September 1971) was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 and the Premier of the Soviet Union, Chai ...
era. According to Mao, it was only after the
Korean War The Korean War (25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953) was an armed conflict on the Korean Peninsula fought between North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea; DPRK) and South Korea (Republic of Korea; ROK) and their allies. North Korea was s ...
that China won the trust of the Soviet Union, followed by more aid, cooperation and the 156 Projects. On the Chinese side, Soviet aid constituted the most important and viable means for reconstruction and recovery. China thus faced a trade-off between aid and revision of the independence of Outer Mongolia acknowledged in the Sino-Soviet treaty signed by the KMT government. There was also uneasiness around creating Sino-Soviet joint ventures, which Mao believed embodied certain degrees of Soviet paternalism and distrust. Also, the Soviet loan was not for free. Stalin demanded the entirety of Chinese surplus production of strategically important resources to be sold to the Soviet Union as repayment. Between 1954 and 1959, China supplied 160,000 tons of
tungsten Tungsten (also called wolfram) is a chemical element; it has symbol W and atomic number 74. It is a metal found naturally on Earth almost exclusively in compounds with other elements. It was identified as a distinct element in 1781 and first ...
ore, 110,000 tons of
copper Copper is a chemical element; it has symbol Cu (from Latin ) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orang ...
, 30,000 tons of
antimony Antimony is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol Sb () and atomic number 51. A lustrous grey metal or metalloid, it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite (). Antimony compounds have been known since ancient t ...
, and 90,000 tons of
rubber Rubber, also called India rubber, latex, Amazonian rubber, ''caucho'', or ''caoutchouc'', as initially produced, consists of polymers of the organic compound isoprene, with minor impurities of other organic compounds. Types of polyisoprene ...
to the
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
. Nevertheless, given the stake of this treaty for both sides, none of these impeded the final agreement.


Effects and legacy


China

Soviet aid to China, as stipulated in the treaty, played a pivotal role in shaping the Chinese economic system securing the survival of the newly established communist regime and contributed to the recovery from the devastation of prolonged wars, industrialization, and modernization of communist China. Namely, the Soviet aid, both technical expertise and assistance in material forms such as equipment, funds, and infrastructure construction, helped lay the groundwork for China's planned economy, state-owned enterprises, and different industries. The massive influx of Soviet aid within a short period replaced the function of
capital accumulation Capital accumulation is the dynamic that motivates the pursuit of profit, involving the investment of money or any financial asset with the goal of increasing the initial monetary value of said asset as a financial return whether in the form ...
essential to the development of economies and significantly reduced the time needed to acquire knowledge and technical skills, which often take practice and study of generations of workers to obtain. Also, joining the Soviet-led socialist camp won China its much-needed international support, which offset the effects of economic blockade, embargo of 400 kinds of goods imposed by the capitalist bloc and military threats. The comprehensive aid also altered the industrial landscape of the newly established country. Prior to the treaty's signing, around 70% of China's industries were concentrated in the coastal area of the southeast, where trade was conducted in the 19th century between western powers and the Qing government. By contrast, projects aided by the Soviet Union were primarily located in the northeast, centre, and the western region of China, which optimized the spatial distribution of China's industries, promoting economies of the previously underdeveloped hinterland and facilitated Chinese industrialization and modernization in general. The Treaty influenced the Chinese foreign policy principle of
non-interventionism Non-interventionism or non-intervention is commonly understood as "a foreign policy of political or military non-involvement in foreign relations or in other countries' internal affairs". This is based on the grounds that a state should not inter ...
, which subsequently became a central principle of Chinese foreign policy after its inclusion in the
Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence The Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence () are the Chinese government's foreign relations principles first mentioned in the 1954 Sino-Indian Agreement. Also known as Panchsheel (Hindi for "five principles"), these principles were subseque ...
.


Downside of the imported Soviet model

What came along with the Soviet aid was a rigid and overly centralized power structure and
planned economy A planned economy is a type of economic system where investment, production and the allocation of capital goods takes place according to economy-wide economic plans and production plans. A planned economy may use centralized, decentralized, ...
. From the ideological perspective, any attempt to acknowledge the positive role of market mechanism was seen as taking the capitalist road. There was also an institutional mismatch between the impressive capability of resources mobilization, massive industrial plant construction, and poor mechanisms of managing and coordinating production. The distinctive drawback inherent to the Stalinist model also manifested itself in China's planned economy. During the first five-year plan, the rapid industrialization disproportionately prioritized the defence and heavy industry, while the importance of civil and light industry was downplayed and rendered accessories.


Sino-Soviet relations and the international system

On the one hand, the signing of the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance contributed to a fraternal relationship between the two sides and redressed the post-WWII balance of power between the capitalist and socialist camps. The perception of
Russians Russians ( ) are an East Slavs, East Slavic ethnic group native to Eastern Europe. Their mother tongue is Russian language, Russian, the most spoken Slavic languages, Slavic language. The majority of Russians adhere to Eastern Orthodox Church ...
as benevolent "elder brothers" guiding China on the road to modernity enjoined great popularity in Chinese society and political discourse. The treaty provisions also bolstered solidarity within the communist bloc led by the Soviet Union, strengthening it in its confrontation with the capitalist bloc and significantly contributing to China's consolidation of power and ruling legitimacy. Soviet aid to socialist countries and treaty signed with China, coinciding with American aid through the Marshall Plan and Truman's
Point Four Program The Point Four Program was a technical assistance program for "developing countries" announced by United States President Harry S. Truman in his inaugural address on January 20, 1949. It took its name from the fact that it was the fourth foreig ...
manifested the great power competition for spheres of influence under the cold war framework and mentality through which the Soviet Union managed to secure China's newly emerged communist regime safeguarding its interest in the Far East. On the other hand, in the diplomatic exchanges between the two sides, Chinese leaders often appealed to the merit of "Sinicization of
Marxism Marxism is a political philosophy and method of socioeconomic analysis. It uses a dialectical and materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to analyse class relations, social conflict, ...
", including "peasant encirclement of the cities", "land revolution", and "secret and open struggle within cities", which were adaptations based on Chinese context and significantly diverged from the orthodox Soviet interpretation of Marxism-Leninism. These sowed the seeds for the
Sino-Soviet split The Sino-Soviet split was the gradual worsening of relations between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) during the Cold War. This was primarily caused by divergences that arose from their ...
in the late 50s and early 60s. Austin Jersild, in his ''The Sino-Soviet Alliance: An International History'', offers a similar perspective that the potentially paternalistic Soviet advising program and years of interaction generated unintended resentment of Soviet involvement, which resembled and reminded the Chinese people of imperialism.


See also

*
Sino-Soviet relations Sino-Soviet relations (; , ''sovetsko-kitayskiye otnosheniya''), or China–Soviet Union relations, refers to the diplomatic relationship between China (both the Chinese Republic of 1912–1949 and its successor, the People's Republic of China) ...
** Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact (1937) ** Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance (1945) **
Sino-Soviet split The Sino-Soviet split was the gradual worsening of relations between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) during the Cold War. This was primarily caused by divergences that arose from their ...
(1956–1966) ** Sino-Soviet border conflict (1969) * 2001 Sino-Russian Treaty of Friendship


References


Bibliography

* Ballis, William B. "The Pattern of Sino-Soviet Treaties, 1945–1950". The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 277, no. 1 (September 1951): 167–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/000271625127700117. * Cheng, Joseph Y. S. "Challenges to China's Russian Policy in Early 21st Century". ''Journal of Contemporary Asia'' 34, no. 4 (2004): 480–502. * Elleman, Bruce A. 2020. "14 February 1950—Sino-Soviet Friendship Treaty". In International Rivalry and Secret Diplomacy in East Asia, 1896–1950. 1st ed., 242–252: Routledge. * Elleman, Bruce A., Stephen Kotkin, and Taylor & Francis eBooks A–Z. ''Manchurian Railways and the Opening of China: An International History''. Armonk, N.Y: M.E. Sharpe, 2010;2009;2015;. * Foot, Rosemary. "New Light on the Sino-Soviet Alliance: Chinese and American Perspectives". ''Journal of Northeast Asian Studies'' 10, no. 3 (1991): 16. * Heinzig, Dieter. The Soviet Union and Communist China 1945–1950: The Arduous Road to the Alliance. 1st ed. Armonk, N.Y: M.E. Sharpe, 2004;1998;2003;.https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315698984 * Knight, John M. "Mandated Internationalism: Sino-Soviet Friendship 1949–1956". Twentieth Century Communism 19, no. 19 (2020): 26–60.https://web.s.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=0&sid=e494e396-a147-4bcc-825d-52f5fc43f90e%40redis * Lawrance, Alan. "PART I the Era of Sino-Soviet Friendship 1945–55". In China's Foreign Relations since 1949, 39–87: Routledge. * Lee, Wonhee. "Review - the Sino-Soviet Alliance: An International History." E-IR, July 11, 2015.https://www.e-ir.info/2015/06/27/review-the-sino-soviet-alliance-an-international-history/ * Zhou, Hong. 2014. "Soviet Aid to China". In Foreign Aid in China, 57–106. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.


Further reading

* Peskov, Yuri. "Sixty Years of the Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance Between the U.S.S.R. and the PRC, February 14, 1950." ''Far Eastern Affairs'' (2010) 38#1 pp. 100–115. * Shen, Zhihua, SpringerLink (Online service), and SpringerLINK eBooks - Social Sciences. 2020;2019;. A Short History of Sino-Soviet Relations, 1917–1991. 1st 2020. ed. Singapore: Springer Singapore. * Bo Yibo & Zhai Qiang (Translator) (1992) The Making of the "Leaning to One Side" Decision, Chinese Historians, 5:1, 57–62, * Lawrance, Alan, Taylor & Francis eBooks - CRKN, Taylor & Francis eBooks A-Z, and CRKN MiL Collection. ''China Under Communism''. London;New York;: Routledge, 1998;2002;. *


External links


An article
which mentions the treaty. * Yang Kuisong,   (2005), Parallel History Project (PHP).
Declassified materials
offering a detailed account of Stalin's conversation with Mao Zedong when negotiating about the treaty in 1949 and 1950.
An analysis and historical account of Sino-Soviet relations
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sino-Soviet Treaty Of Friendship China–Soviet Union relations Cold War treaties Cold War alliances and military strategy Military alliances involving the Soviet Union Treaties of the People's Republic of China Treaties of the Soviet Union 1950 in China 1950 in the Soviet Union Treaties concluded in 1950