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The siege of Almería was an unsuccessful attempt by
Aragon Aragon ( , ; Spanish and ; ) is an autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. In northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces of Spain, ...
to capture the city of
Almería Almería (, , ) is a city and municipalities in Spain, municipality of Spain, located in Andalusia. It is the capital of the province of Almería, province of the same name. It lies in southeastern Iberian Peninsula, Iberia on the Mediterranean S ...
from the
Emirate of Granada The Emirate of Granada, also known as the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada, was an Emirate, Islamic polity in the southern Iberian Peninsula during the Late Middle Ages, ruled by the Nasrid dynasty. It was the last independent Muslim state in Western ...
in 1309. Almería, a Mediterranean port in the southeast of the emirate, was the initial Aragonese target in a joint Aragonese- Castilian campaign aimed at conquering Granada. The Aragonese troops led by their King James II arrived on 11 August, blockading the city and employing
siege engines A siege engine is a device that is designed to break or circumvent heavy castle doors, thick city walls and other fortifications in siege warfare. Some are immobile, constructed in place to attack enemy fortifications from a distance, while othe ...
. The city, led by governor Abu Maydan Shuayb and naval commander Abu al-Hasan al-Randahi, prepared for the siege by strengthening its defenses and stockpiling food. Throughout the siege, both sides exchanged shots from siege engines and engaged in fields battles and skirmishes with varying results. James ordered multiple unsuccessful assaults. A Granadan relief column under Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula arrived nearby in September and harassed the besiegers. The approach of winter and a shortage of supplies in the besiegers' camp led James II to agree to a truce at the end of December. The siege was lifted and the Aragonese began withdrawing from Granadan territories. As James II did not have sufficient ships to transport his troops at once, some men were left behind. Some of them pillaged Granadan territories and some were ambushed while trying to travel home without authorization, resulting in their temporary capture. The siege was viewed as a decisive victory for Granada and ended Aragonese military involvement in the emirate for the rest of James II's reign. Sultan
Nasr of Granada Nasr (1 November 1287 – 16 November 1322), full name Abu al-Juyush Nasr ibn Muhammad (), was the fourth Nasrid dynasty, Nasrid ruler of the Emirate of Granada from 14 March 1309 until his abdication on 8 February 1314. He was the son of Muhamm ...
made peace with Aragon and Castile in 1310.


Background

Since the mid-thirteenth century, the
Emirate of Granada The Emirate of Granada, also known as the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada, was an Emirate, Islamic polity in the southern Iberian Peninsula during the Late Middle Ages, ruled by the Nasrid dynasty. It was the last independent Muslim state in Western ...
was the last remaining Muslim state on the
Iberian Peninsula The Iberian Peninsula ( ), also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in south-western Europe. Mostly separated from the rest of the European landmass by the Pyrenees, it includes the territories of peninsular Spain and Continental Portugal, comprisin ...
. Through a combination of diplomatic and military manoeuvres, it succeeded in maintaining its independence despite being surrounded by two larger neighbours, the
Crown of Castile The Crown of Castile was a medieval polity in the Iberian Peninsula that formed in 1230 as a result of the third and definitive union of the crowns and, some decades later, the parliaments of the kingdoms of Kingdom of Castile, Castile and Kingd ...
to the north and the Muslim Marinid state based in Morocco. From its founding in the 1230s, Granada intermittently entered into alliance or went to war with either of these powers, or encouraged them to fight one another in order to avoid being dominated by either. At the death of Muhammad II () and the accession of Muhammad III (), Granada was allied with a nearby Christian kingdom,
Aragon Aragon ( , ; Spanish and ; ) is an autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. In northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces of Spain, ...
, and at war with Castile. Muhammad III eventually made peace with Castile in the 1303 treaty of Córdoba and became a
vassal A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerain ...
of
Ferdinand IV of Castile Ferdinand IV of Castile (6 December 1285 – 7 September 1312) called the Summoned (''el Emplazado''), was King of Castile and King of León, León from 1295 until his death. Ferdinand's upbringing and personal custody was entered to his mother ...
(). Aragon made peace with Castile in the 1304 Treaty of Torellas, which also included peace with Granada as Castile's vassal. Having secured peace with the two largest powers on the
Iberian Peninsula The Iberian Peninsula ( ), also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in south-western Europe. Mostly separated from the rest of the European landmass by the Pyrenees, it includes the territories of peninsular Spain and Continental Portugal, comprisin ...
, the
Emirate of Granada The Emirate of Granada, also known as the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada, was an Emirate, Islamic polity in the southern Iberian Peninsula during the Late Middle Ages, ruled by the Nasrid dynasty. It was the last independent Muslim state in Western ...
turned its attention to North Africa. Taking advantage of the war between the Marinids and the
Kingdom of Tlemcen The Kingdom of Tlemcen or Zayyanid Kingdom of Tlemcen () was a kingdom ruled by the Berber Zayyanid dynasty in what is now the northwest of Algeria. Its territory stretched from Tlemcen to the Chelif bend and Algiers, and at its zenith reached ...
, Muhammad III instigated a rebellion in
Ceuta Ceuta (, , ; ) is an Autonomous communities of Spain#Autonomous cities, autonomous city of Spain on the North African coast. Bordered by Morocco, it lies along the boundary between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Ceuta is one of th ...
—a port town just across the
Strait of Gibraltar The Strait of Gibraltar is a narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Europe from Africa. The two continents are separated by 7.7 nautical miles (14.2 kilometers, 8.9 miles) at its narrowest point. Fe ...
—against the Marinids in 1304, and in 1306 he sent a fleet to capture the town from the rebels. With Ceuta in its possession, Granada controlled both sides of the strait—it held the ports of
Gibraltar Gibraltar ( , ) is a British Overseas Territories, British Overseas Territory and British overseas cities, city located at the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula, on the Bay of Gibraltar, near the exit of the Mediterranean Sea into the A ...
and
Algeciras Algeciras () is a city and a municipalities in Spain, municipality of Spain belonging to the province of Cádiz, Andalusia. Located in the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula, near the Strait of Gibraltar, it is the largest city on the Bay of G ...
on the European side of the strait, as well as
Málaga Málaga (; ) is a Municipalities in Spain, municipality of Spain, capital of the Province of Málaga, in the Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Andalusia. With a population of 591,637 in 2024, it is the second-most populo ...
and
Almería Almería (, , ) is a city and municipalities in Spain, municipality of Spain, located in Andalusia. It is the capital of the province of Almería, province of the same name. It lies in southeastern Iberian Peninsula, Iberia on the Mediterranean S ...
further east. This development alienated Aragon, Castile, and the Marinids, who all began to make plans against Granada. Castile and Aragon signed the Treaty of Alcalá de Henares on 19 December 1308, pledging to help each other to achieve a total conquest of Granada and split its territories between them. Aragon was promised a sixth of Granadan territories, including the port town of Almería, and the rest would go to Castile. In addition, both Christian powers also made an alliance with Abu al-Rabi Sulayman, who became the Sultan of the Marinids in July 1308 and wanted to recover Ceuta. The result was a tripartite alliance of Castile, Aragon and the Marinids against Granada, which was now isolated and surrounded by three larger enemies. As preparation for war was underway, the people and notables of Granada, angered by the diplomatic isolation, stormed the palaces of Muhammad III and his vizier Ibn al-Hakim al-Rundi, and dethroned the sultan in favour of his younger half-brother Nasr on 14 March 1309.


Preparation

Aragon's naval preparation was noticed by Granada and at the end of February 1309, and Muhammad III queried
James II of Aragon James II (Catalan: ''Jaume II''; Aragonese: ''Chaime II;'' 10 April 1267 – 2 or 5 November 1327), called the Just, was the King of Aragon and Valencia and Count of Barcelona from 1291 to 1327. He was also the King of Sicily (as James I) f ...
() about the target of the operation. James II responded on 17 March, assuring Granada that it was for his conquest of
Sardinia Sardinia ( ; ; ) is the Mediterranean islands#By area, second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, and one of the Regions of Italy, twenty regions of Italy. It is located west of the Italian Peninsula, north of Tunisia an ...
. As tensions rose and Castile's vassals began attacking Granada's borders, the governor of
Almería Almería (, , ) is a city and municipalities in Spain, municipality of Spain, located in Andalusia. It is the capital of the province of Almería, province of the same name. It lies in southeastern Iberian Peninsula, Iberia on the Mediterranean S ...
, Abu Maydan Shuayb, arrested Catalan merchants based in his city and confiscating their goods, while the Granadan fleet prepared for war. James II and his ally Ferdinand IV asked
Pope Clement V Pope Clement V (; – 20 April 1314), born Raymond Bertrand de Got (also occasionally spelled ''de Guoth'' and ''de Goth''), was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 5 June 1305 to his death, in April 1314. He is reme ...
—without mentioning their collaboration with the Marinids—to grant a crusading bull and financial support from the church. The pope granted James II two thirds of the ''decima''—a tenth of church revenues, which can be collected by the monarch if authorized by the pope—for the upcoming crusade against Granada, and declared
indulgence In the teaching of the Catholic Church, an indulgence (, from , 'permit') is "a way to reduce the amount of punishment one has to undergo for (forgiven) sins". The ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' describes an indulgence as "a remission bef ...
s for those participating in the war. To wage war against Granada, James II raised an army with the planned total of 12,000 including 1,000 knights and 2,000 archers. He also raised funds and strengthened the defenses of the
Kingdom of Valencia The Kingdom of Valencia (; ; ), located in the eastern shore of the Iberian Peninsula, was one of the component realms of the Crown of Aragon. The Kingdom of Valencia was formally created in 1238 when the Moorish taifa of Valencia was taken in ...
, his realm closest to Granada. His target was Almería, in the southeastern coast of the Emirate of Granada and about from the capital. James brought along a relic of Indaletius, a saint from the ancient Urci on whose ruins Almería was believed to stand. Aragon did not have an immediate border with the Emirate, so a part of the force was transported by sea and others had to march overland through Castilian territories and then from the Castile–Granada frontiers to Almería via hostile territories. The city of Almería prepared against a siege by stockpiling food, implementing a ration and strengthening the city's defenses. A Muslim account emphasized the importance of the food supplies, saying that "one of the signs of Allah's protection of the city's inhabitants was that great quantities of
barley Barley (), a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally. It was one of the first cultivated grains; it was domesticated in the Fertile Crescent around 9000 BC, giving it nonshattering spikele ...
were in the storehouses at the beginning of the siege". The city's governor, Abu Maydan Shuayb and the naval commander Abu al-Hasan al-Randahi organized the improvement of the city's defense. They strengthened the walls, closed various gaps and demolished outer buildings that might be used by the attackers.


Siege

James II and his forces sailed from Valencia on 18 July 1309 and landed on the coast of Almería on 11 August. A Muslim account emphasized the forces' rich and colorful clothing, and the military instruments played by their musicians. His forces included
siege engine A siege engine is a device that is designed to break or circumvent heavy castle doors, thick city walls and other fortifications in siege warfare. Some are immobile, constructed in place to attack enemy fortifications from a distance, while othe ...
s such as
mangonel The mangonel, also called the traction trebuchet, was a type of trebuchet used in Ancient China starting from the Warring States period, and later across Eurasia by the 6th century AD. Unlike the later counterweight trebuchet, the mangonel was ...
s and
trebuchet A trebuchet () is a type of catapult that uses a hinged arm with a sling attached to the tip to launch a projectile. It was a common powerful siege engine until the advent of gunpowder. The design of a trebuchet allows it to launch projectiles ...
s. Such a display initially demoralized the defenders, but as time went by and various incidents took place, they became more optimistic. The besiegers spread their troops to blockade the city by land and sea, and established
palisade A palisade, sometimes called a stakewall or a paling, is typically a row of closely placed, high vertical standing tree trunks or wooden or iron stakes used as a fence for enclosure or as a defensive wall. Palisades can form a stockade. Etymo ...
s and
ditch A ditch is a small to moderate trench created to channel water. A ditch can be used for drainage, to drain water from low-lying areas, alongside roadways or fields, or to channel water from a more distant source for plant irrigation. Ditches ...
es. The defenders manned the walls with archers and infantrymen, and barred all the gates with stonework except for some which were to be used for sorties. The late summer arrival was a major disadvantage for the invaders. It meant that there was a short time before the weather got cooler, and if the siege lasted until winter it would be an advantage for the defenders who did not have to be out in the field. Apart from Almería in the east, the Emirate of Granada had to defend itself from multiple fronts. In North Africa, the Marinids attacked Ceuta in 12 May 1308 and took it on 21 July, while in Granada's western flank, Castile besieged Algeciras (31 July 1309 – January 1310) as well as Gibraltar (August – September 1309). Nevertheless, Nasr sent a relief forces to Almería, which were defeated by the Aragonese in an open battle on 23 August. A Christian account mentioned that the Muslims lost 6,000 men, but modern historian Joseph F. O'Callaghan considered this figure to be exaggerated. Upon hearing the news, Pope Clement V congratulated James on the victory. The defeated relief forces remained in the vicinity, and continued to harass the besiegers. In late August or early September, the city defenders repelled an assault by the Aragonese forces. The attackers used scaling ladders and
siege tower A Roman siege tower or breaching tower (or in the Middle Ages, a belfry''Castle: Stephen Biesty's Cross-Sections''. Dorling Kindersley Pub (T); 1st American edition (September 1994). Siege towers were invented in 300 BC. ) is a specialized siege ...
s which were loaded with troops and moved by wheels. The defenders resisted by pouring boiling oil and other flammables on the assailants. As a result, one of the siege towers was burnt and the assault was aborted. During the retreat, many assailants were left behind and captured by the Muslims. After this failure, the Aragonese continued to lob rocks weighing up to thirty pounds into the city. The attackers also employed
sapper A sapper, also called a combat engineer, is a combatant or soldier who performs a variety of military engineering duties, such as breaching fortifications, demolitions, bridge-building, laying or clearing minefields, preparing field defenses ...
s to dig tunnels with the goal of undermining the foundation of the walls, but the defenders employed counter-sappers who found the tunnels. An underground combat ensued which resulted in the destruction of the attackers' tunnels. In mid or late September, Granada made peace with the Marinids, in exchange for surrendering the western towns of Algeciras (besieged by Castile) and Ronda. Not only did this mean that there was one less enemy for Granada, but the Marinids also took over the responsibilities for defending Algeciras, freeing Nasr to strengthen his eastern flank. On 17 September a Volunteers of the Faith contingent sent from Granada under Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula arrived in
Marchena ''Marchena'' is a genus of jumping spiders only found in the United States. Its only described species, ''M. minuta'', dwells on the barks of conifers along the west coast, especially California, Washington and Nevada.Maddison, Wayne. 1995. ...
near Almería and defeated a small Aragonese force. This relief contingent camped nearby and continuously frustrated the besiegers by harassing their foraging parties. On 15 October, the Aragonese reported a victory against a Muslim army of 60,000, killing 2,000 and taking others prisoners, numbers considered "surely .an exaggeration" by O'Callaghan. James sent warnings of Muslim counter-attacks to his cities of
Murcia Murcia ( , , ) is a city in south-eastern Spain, the Capital (political), capital and most populous city of the autonomous community of the Region of Murcia, and the Ranked lists of Spanish municipalities#By population, seventh largest city i ...
and Lorca. As the siege continued, the invaders tried to use a stratagem to trick the defenders. A group of Christian soldiers slipped out in the darkness and then approached the city dressed in
burnous A burnous (), also burnoose, burnouse, bournous or barnous, is a long cloak of coarse woollen fabric with a pointed hood, often white, traditionally worn by Arabs, Arab and Berbers, Berber men in North Africa. Historically, the white burnous was w ...
es to make the defenders think that they were Muslims. Another group of Christian knights then pretended to give them a chase and to leave their tents unguarded. The tents were made to look as a tempting target for pillage while in fact they were set up for an ambush. A group of riders then came out of the city to pillage the tents, but the Christians came out of their concealed positions too soon, allowing the riders to escape. Most of them managed to reenter the city via the side entrance that happened to be made ready to open the day before, but some were left behind. They then had to stay at the foot of the walls, protected by covering fire from the city. When the fighting died down they reentered the city. The siege's progress was dominated by the exchange of shots from siege engines. According to Ibn Al-Qadi 22,000 rocks were thrown throughout the siege. The attackers had eleven catapults or other such engines. The Muslims initially had just one, but when this was destroyed by enemy fire they built three more. At the end of December, a section of the walls was breached and the Christians rushed to attack it, but a Muslim force defended the section and stopped them from entering the city.


Truce and Aragonese withdrawal

At the end of the year, the prospect for an Aragonese victory faded. Winter was coming and would endanger their forces in the field. The concurrent siege of Algeciras by Castile was weakening, which allowed Granada to deploy more forces against Aragon. In addition, winds blew from the west and prevented the besiegers from receiving supplies which came by sea from Aragon. The Granadan commander, Uthman ibn Abi al-Ula not only successfully harassed the attackers, but served as a diplomat in negotiations with James II. At the end of December, a
parley A parley (from – "to speak") is a discussion or conference, especially one designed to end an argument or hostilities between two groups of people. As a verb, the term can be used in both past and present tense; in present tense the term ...
took place in the Aragonese camp and both sides agreed to a truce. Under the terms of the truce, the Aragonese were to lift the siege and withdraw from Granadan territories. Due to logistical difficulties, such as a lack of vessels to bring the troops home, evacuation took place gradually and some men were left behind under Muslim protection. Some of the demoralized Aragonese tried to go home without authorization and suffered ambushes and attacks along the way, with many captured by the Muslims. At one point during the evacuation, Nasr wrote to James that the city's defenders had to put the remaining Aragonese troops under detention because they were pillaging Granadan territories. Nasr further noted that the Muslims gave them housing and food at their own expense "because some of them were starving" while waiting for the Aragonese ships to pick them up. A rumour of a renewed attack by James II circulated in the city but never materialized. The citizens of Almería removed leftover siege works outside the city walls as precautions. The Aragonese prisoners were later released in the peace settlement.


Aftermath

The defeat of the Aragonese in Almería, as well as the simultaneous defense of Algeciras from Castile, were major successes for Granada. Both Castile and Aragon made peace with Granada by early 1310. According to the historian L. P. Harvey, the particularly humiliating defeat and evacuation of the Aragonese "taught he Aragonesea lesson" and delayed the progress of the ''
reconquista The ''Reconquista'' (Spanish language, Spanish and Portuguese language, Portuguese for ) or the fall of al-Andalus was a series of military and cultural campaigns that European Christian Reconquista#Northern Christian realms, kingdoms waged ag ...
'' for decades. José Ramón Hinojosa Montalvo wrote that "the material and morale failure of the Granada enterprise" caused James II to subsequently redirect his attention to the central Mediterranean, away from Granada. For Granada, the successes in Almería and Algeciras were tempered by the loss of Gibraltar to Castile, as well as the cession of Algeciras and Ronda to the Marinids. Nasr himself became unpopular and faced the rebellion of his brother-in-law
Abu Said Faraj Abu or ABU may refer to: Aviation * Airman Battle Uniform, a utility uniform of the United States Air Force * IATA airport code for A. A. Bere Tallo Airport in Atambua, Province of East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia People * Abu (Arabic term), a kun ...
and nephew Ismail in 1311, which resulted in his dethronement and the accession of Ismail in 1314.


Notes


References


Citations


Bibliography

* * * * * * * {{Cite encyclopedia , last=Vidal Castro , first=Francisco , title=Nasr , encyclopedia=Diccionario Biográfico electrónico , publisher=
Real Academia de la Historia The Royal Academy of History (, RAH) is a Spanish institution in Madrid that studies history "ancient and modern, political, civil, ecclesiastical, military, scientific, of letters and arts, that is to say, the different branches of life, of c ...
, url=http://dbe.rah.es/biografias/13393/nasr , language=es
Almería Almería (, , ) is a city and municipalities in Spain, municipality of Spain, located in Andalusia. It is the capital of the province of Almería, province of the same name. It lies in southeastern Iberian Peninsula, Iberia on the Mediterranean S ...
Almería Almería (, , ) is a city and municipalities in Spain, municipality of Spain, located in Andalusia. It is the capital of the province of Almería, province of the same name. It lies in southeastern Iberian Peninsula, Iberia on the Mediterranean S ...
Almería Almería (, , ) is a city and municipalities in Spain, municipality of Spain, located in Andalusia. It is the capital of the province of Almería, province of the same name. It lies in southeastern Iberian Peninsula, Iberia on the Mediterranean S ...
History of Almería