''Salammbô'' is an 1862
historical novel
Historical fiction is a literary genre in which a fictional plot takes place in the setting of particular real historical events. Although the term is commonly used as a synonym for historical fiction literature, it can also be applied to oth ...
by
Gustave Flaubert
Gustave Flaubert ( , ; ; 12 December 1821 – 8 May 1880) was a French novelist. He has been considered the leading exponent of literary realism in his country and abroad. According to the literary theorist Kornelije Kvas, "in Flaubert, realis ...
. It is set in
Carthage
Carthage was an ancient city in Northern Africa, on the eastern side of the Lake of Tunis in what is now Tunisia. Carthage was one of the most important trading hubs of the Ancient Mediterranean and one of the most affluent cities of the classic ...
immediately before and during the
Mercenary Revolt (241–237 BCE). Flaubert's principal source was Book I of the ''
Histories'', written by the Greek historian
Polybius
Polybius (; , ; ) was a Greek historian of the middle Hellenistic period. He is noted for his work , a universal history documenting the rise of Rome in the Mediterranean in the third and second centuries BC. It covered the period of 264–146 ...
. The novel was enormously popular when first published and jumpstarted a renewed interest in the history of the
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic ( ) was the era of Ancient Rome, classical Roman civilisation beginning with Overthrow of the Roman monarchy, the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom (traditionally dated to 509 BC) and ending in 27 BC with the establis ...
's conflict with the North African
Phoenicia
Phoenicians were an Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples, ancient Semitic group of people who lived in the Phoenician city-states along a coastal strip in the Levant region of the eastern Mediterranean, primarily modern Lebanon and the Syria, Syrian ...
n outpost of
Carthage
Carthage was an ancient city in Northern Africa, on the eastern side of the Lake of Tunis in what is now Tunisia. Carthage was one of the most important trading hubs of the Ancient Mediterranean and one of the most affluent cities of the classic ...
.
Genesis
After the legal troubles that followed the publication of ''
Madame Bovary
''Madame Bovary: Provincial Manners'' (; ), commonly known as simply ''Madame Bovary'', is the début novel by France, French writer Gustave Flaubert, originally published in 1856 and 1857. The eponymous character, Emma Bovary, lives beyond he ...
'', when he was tried and acquitted on charges of "immorality",
Flaubert sought a less controversial subject for his next novel. In 1857, Flaubert decided to conduct research in Carthage, writing in March to
Félicien de Saulcy, a French archeologist, about his plans. In a letter to Madame de Chantepie dated 23 January 1858, he described his anticipation: "I absolutely have to go to Africa. This is why, around the end of March, I will go back to the country of exotic dates. I am giddy with excitement. I will once again spend my days on horseback and my nights in a tent. What a happy breath I will take as I get onboard the steam boat in Marseilles!" From 12 April to 5 June 1858, Flaubert traveled to
Tunisia
Tunisia, officially the Republic of Tunisia, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It is bordered by Algeria to the west and southwest, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Tunisia also shares m ...
, to explore the locations of his novel, though little survived from ancient times.
Publication
Contemporary readers familiar with Flaubert's previous
realistic work, ''
Madame Bovary
''Madame Bovary: Provincial Manners'' (; ), commonly known as simply ''Madame Bovary'', is the début novel by France, French writer Gustave Flaubert, originally published in 1856 and 1857. The eponymous character, Emma Bovary, lives beyond he ...
'', and the legal controversy that followed its publication made ''Salammbô'' a bestseller, though its violence and sensuality bore little resemblance to Flaubert's previous work. It was praised for its style and story. Its descriptions of
Carthaginian costume influenced contemporary fashions and the attention it paid to
Roman North Africa
Africa was a Roman province on the northern coast of the continent of Africa. It was established in 146 BC, following the Roman Republic's conquest of Carthage in the Third Punic War. It roughly comprised the territory of present-day Tunisi ...
inspired new interest in archeological exploration there.
Synopsis
After the
First Punic War
The First Punic War (264–241 BC) was the first of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean in the early 3rd century BC. For 23 years, in the longest continuous conflict and grea ...
, Carthage is unable to fulfill promises made to its army of mercenaries, and finds itself under attack. The fictional title character, a priestess and the daughter of
Hamilcar Barca
Hamilcar Barca or Barcas (; – 228BC) was a Ancient Carthage, Carthaginian general and statesman, leader of the Barcid family, and father of Hannibal, Hasdrubal Barca, Hasdrubal and Mago Barca, Mago. He was also father-in-law to Hasdrubal the F ...
, the foremost Carthaginian general, is the object of the obsessive lust of Matho, a leader of the mercenaries. With the help of the scheming freed slave, Spendius, Matho steals the sacred veil of Carthage, the Zaïmph, prompting Salammbô to enter the mercenaries' camp in an attempt to steal it back. The Zaïmph is an ornate bejewelled veil draped about the statue of the goddess
Tanit
Tanit or Tinnit (Punic language, Punic: 𐤕𐤍𐤕 ''Tīnnīt'' (JStor)) was a chief deity of Ancient Carthage; she derives from a local Berber deity and the consort of Baal Hammon. As Ammon is a local Libyan deity, so is Tannit, who represents ...
in the ''
sanctum sanctorum'' of her temple: the veil is the city's guardian and touching it will bring death to the perpetrator.
* Chapter 1. "The Feast". "It was at Megara, a suburb of Carthage, in the gardens of Hamilcar." The novel opens on a feast organized to celebrate the victory of the battle of
Eryx, won against Rome. During the libations, the mercenaries ransack the place, spurred on by Hamilcar's absence, and the memories of the unkind and unfair way Carthage treated them throughout the war. Salammbô, Hamilcar's daughter, appears. She scolds them for their actions and entreats them to enjoy the feast without destroying the place. Two men stare at her: Narr' Havas, a troop leader from Numidia and Hamilcar's guest, and Matho, a Libyan wearing a necklace with a moon pendent. The young woman hands Matho a glass full of wine and he drinks from it. A Gaulish soldier tells him that, where he is from, this is an offer of intimacy. Jealous, Narr' Havas throws a javelin and wounds him. In the scuffle that ensues, Salammbô retreats to the palace, leaving Matho wondering. Spendius, a freed slave, tries to persuade Matho to take Carthage for the mercenaries.
* Chapter 2. "At
Sicca". Two days, later, after much pleading and promises of payment, the mercenaries agree to leave the city. They walk for seven days and reach the holy city of Sicca. On the way there, a line of crucified lions creates a sense of unease. There, Spendius realizes that Matho is haunted by the memory of Salammbô, with whom he has fallen in love. The
shophet, Hanno, a fat, leprous man, is sent to explain to them that Carthage has no money and will be delaying payment of its debt. Since the
shophet only speaks a Punic language, Spendius offers to translate for the army and misrepresents Hanno's message in order to set the mercenaries against him. To make matters worse, Zarxas arrives and relates the treacherous massacre of 300 slingers who had stayed behind. As the dignitary flees in shame, fearing for his life, Spendius convinces the mercenaries to go back to Carthage.
* Chapter 3. "Salammbô". On a moonlit night, Salammbô appears on a palace terrace. She invokes
Tanit
Tanit or Tinnit (Punic language, Punic: 𐤕𐤍𐤕 ''Tīnnīt'' (JStor)) was a chief deity of Ancient Carthage; she derives from a local Berber deity and the consort of Baal Hammon. As Ammon is a local Libyan deity, so is Tannit, who represents ...
, the
lunar goddess and the city's
tutelary deity
A tutelary (; also tutelar) is a deity or a Nature spirit, spirit who is a guardian, patron, or protector of a particular place, geographic feature, person, lineage, nation, culture, or occupation. The etymology of "tutelary" expresses the concept ...
, whose moods and phases greatly influence her. Raised within the limits of the palace and destined to a political alliance, Salammbô knows little, but as a priestess of Tanit, she wants to see the statue erected in the temple, in honor of the goddess. Schahabarim, a
high priest
The term "high priest" usually refers either to an individual who holds the office of ruler-priest, or to one who is the head of a religious organisation.
Ancient Egypt
In ancient Egypt, a high priest was the chief priest of any of the many god ...
, forbids it, as the sight of the statue is so powerful it might kill her. From afar, they catch sight of the mercenary army, closing in on Carthage.
* Chapter 4. "Beneath the Walls of Carthage". The mercenaries besiege Carthage; Matho and Spendius penetrate via the aqueduct.
* Chapter 5. "Tanit". Matho and Spendius steal the Zaïmph. Because Matho is caught while breaking into Salammbô's bedroom to see her again, she falls under suspicion of complicity.
* Chapter 6. "Hanno". The mercenaries leave Carthage and split into two groups, attacking
Utica and
Hippo-Zarytus. Hanno surprises Spendius at Utica, and occupies the city, but flees when Matho arrives and routs his troops.
* Chapter 7. "Hamilcar Barca". The hero returns and an attempt is made to blame him for Hanno's losses. He defends himself before the council and defends the mercenaries, but turns against the barbarians when he sees the damage they have done to his property.
* Chapter 8. "
The Battle of the Macar". Hamilcar defeats Spendius at the bridge of the
Macar river, three miles from Utica.
* Chapter 9. "In the Field". Hamilcar's troops are trapped by the mercenaries.
* Chapter 10. "The Serpent". Schahabarim sends Salammbô in disguise to retrieve the Zaïmph.
* Chapter 11. "In the Tent". Salammbô reaches Matho in his tent at the encampment. Believing each other to be divine apparitions, they make love. The mercenaries are attacked and dispersed by Hamilcar's troops. She takes away the Zaïmph, and on meeting her father, Hamilcar has her betrothed to Narr' Havas, who has changed sides.
* Chapter 12. "The Aqueduct". The Carthaginians return to their city with the mercenaries in pursuit. Spendius cuts off the water supply to Carthage.
* Chapter 13. "Moloch". Carthaginian children are sacrificed to
Moloch. Hamilcar disguises a slave-child as his son Hannibal and sends him to die in his son's place.
* Chapter 14. "The Defile of the Axe". The drought is broken and aid comes. Hamilcar drives the mercenaries away from their encampments. Later, thousands of mercenaries are trapped in a
defile and slowly starve (the
Battle of "The Saw"). Deaths of Hanno and Spendius, both by crucifixion.
* Chapter 15. "Matho". Victory celebrations at Carthage. Matho is tortured before his execution; Salammbô, witnessing this, dies of shock. The Zaïmph has brought death upon those who touched it.
Characters
The transliterations follow J. W. Matthews' English version.
* Abdalonim, the overseer of Hamilcar's stewards
*
Autharitus (Autharite), a
Gallic leader of the Mercenaries
* Demonades, a servant of Hanno
* Giddenem, the governor of Hamilcar's slaves
* Gisco (Gesco), a Carthaginian general
*
Hamilcar Barca (Amilcar), Carthaginian general who led the mercenaries before the events of the book
*
Hannibal
Hannibal (; ; 247 – between 183 and 181 BC) was a Punic people, Carthaginian general and statesman who commanded the forces of Ancient Carthage, Carthage in their battle against the Roman Republic during the Second Punic War.
Hannibal's fat ...
, Hamilcar's young son
* Hanno (Hannon), a Carthaginian general (based on
Hanno the Great Hanno the Great may refer to any of three different leaders of ancient Carthage:
* Hanno I the Great (4th century BC)
* Hanno II the Great (3rd century BC)
* Hanno III the Great (2nd century BC)
According to B. H. Warmington, the nickname was prob ...
and
the Hannibal of the Mercenary War)
* Iddibal, a servant of Hamilcar
*
Matho (or Mâthos), a
Libyan leader of the Mercenaries
* Narr' Havas (Flaubert's spelling of
Naravas), prince of the Numidians, and a leader of the Mercenaries
* Salammbô, daughter of Hamilcar
* Schahabarim, high priest of Tanith, and teacher of Salammbô
*
Spendius, a slave of Hamilcar, captured at the battle of Argunisae, who becomes a leader of the Mercenaries during the Revolt
* Taanach, a slave attending Salammbô
* Zarxas (
Zarzas), a leader of the Mercenaries from the
Balearic Isles
Quotations
The opening passage:
The description of child sacrifice in chapter 13:
Historical inaccuracies
Flaubert departed from the Greek historian
Polybius
Polybius (; , ; ) was a Greek historian of the middle Hellenistic period. He is noted for his work , a universal history documenting the rise of Rome in the Mediterranean in the third and second centuries BC. It covered the period of 264–146 ...
's
account of the Punic Wars when it suited his purposes. Though the mercenaries had executed a Carthaginian general named
Hannibal
Hannibal (; ; 247 – between 183 and 181 BC) was a Punic people, Carthaginian general and statesman who commanded the forces of Ancient Carthage, Carthage in their battle against the Roman Republic during the Second Punic War.
Hannibal's fat ...
, Flaubert did not want to contribute to confusion of that Hannibal with the far more familiar
Hannibal
Hannibal (; ; 247 – between 183 and 181 BC) was a Punic people, Carthaginian general and statesman who commanded the forces of Ancient Carthage, Carthage in their battle against the Roman Republic during the Second Punic War.
Hannibal's fat ...
who commanded the military forces of Carthage in the
Second Punic War
The Second Punic War (218 to 201 BC) was the second of Punic Wars, three wars fought between Ancient Carthage, Carthage and Roman Republic, Rome, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean Basin, Mediterranean in the 3rd century BC. For ...
in the 3rd century BCE. He therefore changed the name of his character to Hanno, the name of other Carthaginian military figures of less prominence.
English Translations
* ''Salammbô,'' first edition translated by
Eleanor Marx
Jenny Julia Eleanor Marx (16 January 1855 – 31 March 1898), sometimes called Eleanor Aveling and known to her family as Tussy, was the English-born youngest daughter of Karl Marx. She was herself a Socialism, socialist activist who sometimes ...
(1862)
* ''Salammbô,'' translated by M. French Sheldon (1885)
Adaptations
Musical
* ''
Salammbô'', an unfinished opera by
Modest Mussorgsky
Modest Petrovich Mussorgsky (; ; ; – ) was a Russian composer, one of the group known as "The Five (composers), The Five." He was an innovator of Music of Russia, Russian music in the Romantic music, Romantic period and strove to achieve a ...
(1863–66)
* ''
Salammbô'', an unfinished opera by
Sergei Rachmaninoff
Sergei Vasilyevich Rachmaninoff; in Russian pre-revolutionary script. (28 March 1943) was a Russian composer, virtuoso pianist, and Conducting, conductor. Rachmaninoff is widely considered one of the finest pianists of his day and, as a compos ...
* ''
Salammbô'', an opera composed by
Ernest Reyer based on Flaubert's novel (1890).
* ''Salammbo (Florent Schmitt): Three orchestral suites op. 76'', from the music for the 1925 film by Pierre Maradon
* ''Salammbo'', an opera composed by
Josef Matthias Hauer based on Flaubert's novel (1929).
* ''Salammbô'', an opera by the French composer
Philippe Fénelon, on a libretto by Jean-Yves Masson after Flaubert (1998)
Film
* ''
Cabiria
''Cabiria'' is a 1914 Italian Epic film, epic silent film, directed by Giovanni Pastrone and shot in Turin. The film is set in ancient Sicily, Carthage, and Cirta during the period of the Second Punic War (218–202 BC). It follows the story o ...
'', a 1914 Italian silent film by
Giovanni Pastrone
Giovanni Pastrone, also known by his artistic name Piero Fosco (13 September 1883 – 27 June 1959), was an Italian film pioneer, director, screenwriter, actor and technician.
Pastrone was born in Montechiaro d'Asti. He worked during the era ...
* ''Salambò'', a 1915 Italian silent film by Domenico Gaido, released in Italy in October 1914. First U.S. release on 3 March 1915
* ''Salammbô'', a 1925 silent film by
Pierre Marodon, with music by
Florent Schmitt
* ''
The Loves of Salammbo'', a 1962
sword and sandal film by
Sergio Grieco
Sergio Grieco (13 January 1917 – 30 March 1982) was an Italian film director and screenwriter.
Biography
Sergio's father was the Italian Communist Party, Italian Communist Ruggero Grieco.
Grieco first started in film in the Soviet Union in 1 ...
* In
Orson Welles
George Orson Welles (May 6, 1915 – October 10, 1985) was an American director, actor, writer, producer, and magician who is remembered for his innovative work in film, radio, and theatre. He is among the greatest and most influential film ...
's film ''
Citizen Kane
''Citizen Kane'' is a 1941 American Drama (film and television), drama film directed by, produced by and starring Orson Welles and co-written by Welles and Herman J. Mankiewicz. It was Welles's List of directorial debuts, first feature film. ...
'', Charles Foster Kane's wife Susan sings the title role of Salammbô in a fictitious opera; the aria shown in the film was composed by
Bernard Herrmann
Bernard Herrmann (born Maximillian Herman; June 29, 1911December 24, 1975) was an American composer and conductor best known for his work in film scoring. As a conductor, he championed the music of lesser-known composers. He is widely regarde ...
.
Stage
* "Salammbô", burlesque by A. Chanay (1911)
* ''Salambo,'' verse play by George Morrison von Schrader (1914)
* ''Salammbo'', a play by
Charles Ludlam (1988)
Other
* ''Salammbô'', a series of
science fiction graphic novels by
Phillippe Druillet (1980, 1982, 1986)
* ''
Salammbo: Battle for Carthage'' is the title of a Windows game by
Dreamcatcher Interactive with artwork by Druillet. Its story is based on both Gustave Flaubert's and Phillipe Druillet's works (2003)
* "Salammbô" (1999) and "Salambô Redux" (2007), short stories by
Caitlín R. Kiernan (1999)
* ''
The Adventures of Alix'', a historical comics series by
Jacques Martin, inspired by the novel
* The Musée des Beaux-Arts in Rouen mounted an exhibition in 2021 called "Salambô: Fureurs! Passion! Éléphants!".
In art
File:Bussiere,Gaston - Salammbo, 1907.jpg, ''Salammbô'', Gaston Bussière
Gaston Bussière (April 24, 1862, in Cuisery – October 29, 1928 or 1929, in Saulieu) was a French Symbolist painter and illustrator.
Biography
Bussière studied at l'Académie des Beaux-Arts in Lyon before entering the école des beaux-ar ...
(1907)
File:Salammbô by Auguste Rodin.jpg, ''Salammbô'' by Auguste Rodin
François Auguste René Rodin (; ; 12 November 184017 November 1917) was a French sculptor generally considered the founder of modern sculpture. He was schooled traditionally and took a craftsman-like approach to his work. Rodin possessed a u ...
File:Tanoux-Salammbo-1921.jpg, ''Salammbô'' by Henri Adrien Tanoux (1921)
File:Salammbô by Antonin Idrac, 1903 - Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek - Copenhagen - DSC09290.JPG, ''Salammbô'', sculpture by Antonin Idrac (1903)
File:Sinibaldi-Salammbo.jpg, ''Salammbô'' by Jean-Paul Sinibaldi (1885)
References
;Additional sources
*
External links
Texts
*
* ''(French)''
* ''(English)''
Audio
*
*
Jolly Roger: ''Salammbô'' Gustave Flaubert*
ClassicReader.com ''Salammbô''*
Arthur's Classic Novels: ''Salammbô'' by Gustave Flaubert
*
{{DEFAULTSORT:Salammbo
1862 French novels
Carthage
Child sacrifice
French historical novels
Novels adapted into comics
French novels adapted into films
French novels adapted into plays
Mercenary War
French novels adapted into operas
Novels by Gustave Flaubert
Novels set in ancient Rome
Novels set in the 3rd century BC
Works set in Carthage
Punic Wars
Moloch in literature and popular culture
Cultural depictions of Hannibal