The Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 (also called the Parthian War of Lucius Verus) was fought between the
Roman
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
*Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of Roman civilization
*Epistle to the Romans, shortened to Romans, a letter w ...
and
Parthian Empire
The Parthian Empire (), also known as the Arsacid Empire (), was a major Iranian political and cultural power centered in ancient Iran from 247 BC to 224 AD. Its latter name comes from its founder, Arsaces I, who led the Parni tribe ...
s over
Armenia
Armenia, officially the Republic of Armenia, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of West Asia. It is a part of the Caucasus region and is bordered by Turkey to the west, Georgia (country), Georgia to the north and Azerbaijan to ...
and
Upper Mesopotamia
Upper Mesopotamia constitutes the Upland and lowland, uplands and great outwash plain of northwestern Iraq, northeastern Syria and southeastern Turkey, in the northern Middle East. Since the early Muslim conquests of the mid-7th century, the regio ...
. It concluded in 166 after the Romans made successful campaigns into
Lower Mesopotamia
Lower Mesopotamia is a historical region of Mesopotamia. It is located in the alluvial plain of Iraq from the Hamrin Mountains to the Faw Peninsula near the Persian Gulf.
In the Middle Ages it was also known as the '' Sawad'' and al-Jazira al-s ...
and
Media
Media may refer to:
Communication
* Means of communication, tools and channels used to deliver information or data
** Advertising media, various media, content, buying and placement for advertising
** Interactive media, media that is inter ...
and sacked
Ctesiphon
Ctesiphon ( ; , ''Tyspwn'' or ''Tysfwn''; ; , ; Thomas A. Carlson et al., “Ctesiphon — ܩܛܝܣܦܘܢ ” in The Syriac Gazetteer last modified July 28, 2014, http://syriaca.org/place/58.) was an ancient city in modern Iraq, on the eastern ba ...
, the Parthian capital.
Origins to Lucius' dispatch, 161–162
On his deathbed in the spring of 161,
Emperor
The word ''emperor'' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire. ''Empress'', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/grand empress dowager), or a woman who rules ...
Antoninus Pius
Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius (; ; 19 September 86 – 7 March 161) was Roman emperor from AD 138 to 161. He was the fourth of the Five Good Emperors from the Nerva–Antonine dynasty.
Born into a senatorial family, Antoninus held var ...
had spoken of nothing but the state and the foreign kings who had wronged him. One of those kings,
Vologases IV of Parthia
Vologases IV ( ''Walagash'') was King of Kings of the Parthian Empire from 147 to 191. He was the son of Mithridates V of Parthia, Mithridates V (). Vologases spent the early years of his reign re-asserting Parthian control over the Characene, Ki ...
, made his move in late summer or early autumn 161. Vologases entered the
Kingdom of Armenia (then a Roman client state), expelled its king and installed his own—
Pacorus, an
Arsacid like himself. At the time of the invasion, the governor of
Syria
Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
was
Lucius Attidius Cornelianus. Attidius had been retained as governor even though his term had ended in 161, presumably to avoid giving the Parthians the chance to wrong-foot his replacement. The governor of
Cappadocia
Cappadocia (; , from ) is a historical region in Central Anatolia region, Turkey. It is largely in the provinces of Nevşehir, Kayseri, Aksaray, Kırşehir, Sivas and Niğde. Today, the touristic Cappadocia Region is located in Nevşehir ...
, the front-line in all Armenian conflicts, was
Marcus Sedatius Severianus, a
Gaul
Gaul () was a region of Western Europe first clearly described by the Roman people, Romans, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of Switzerland, the Netherlands, Germany, and Northern Italy. It covered an area of . Ac ...
with much experience in military matters. But living in the east had a deleterious effect on his character.
Alexander of Abonutichus, a prophet who carried a snake named
Glycon around with him, had enraptured Severianus, as he had many others. Father-in-law to the respected senator
Publius Mummius Sisenna Rutilianus, then-proconsul of
Asia
Asia ( , ) is the largest continent in the world by both land area and population. It covers an area of more than 44 million square kilometres, about 30% of Earth's total land area and 8% of Earth's total surface area. The continent, which ...
, Abonutichus was friends with many members of the east Roman elite. Alexander convinced Severianus that he could defeat the Parthians easily, and win glory for himself. Severianus led a
legion (perhaps the
IX ''Hispana'') into Armenia, but was trapped by the great Parthian general Chosrhoes at
Elegeia, a town just beyond the Cappadocian frontiers, past the headwaters of the
Euphrates
The Euphrates ( ; see #Etymology, below) is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of West Asia. Tigris–Euphrates river system, Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia (). Originati ...
. Severianus made some attempt to fight Chosrhoes, but soon realized the futility of his campaign, and committed suicide. His legion was massacred, around 5,000–6,000 Roman were killed. The campaign had only lasted three days.

There was threat of war on other frontiers as well—in
Britain
Britain most often refers to:
* Great Britain, a large island comprising the countries of England, Scotland and Wales
* The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, a sovereign state in Europe comprising Great Britain and the north-eas ...
, and in
Raetia
Raetia or Rhaetia ( , ) was a province of the Roman Empire named after the Rhaetian people. It bordered on the west with the country of the Helvetii, on the east with Noricum, on the north with Vindelicia, on the south-west with Transalpine ...
and
Upper Germany, where the
Chatti
The Chatti (also Chatthi or Catti) were an ancient Germanic tribe
whose homeland was near the upper Weser (''Visurgis'') river. They lived in central and northern Hesse and southern Lower Saxony, along the upper reaches of that river and in ...
of the
Taunus
The Taunus () is a mountain range in Hesse and Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany, located north west of Frankfurt and north of Wiesbaden. The tallest peak in the range is '' Großer Feldberg'' at 878 m; other notable peaks are '' Kleiner Feldberg' ...
mountains had recently crossed over the ''
limes''.
Marcus Aurelius
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus ( ; ; 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and a Stoicism, Stoic philosopher. He was a member of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty, the last of the rulers later known as the Five Good Emperors ...
, who had become emperor on Pius' death on 7 March 161, was unprepared. Pius seems to have given him no military experience; the biographer writes that Marcus spent the whole of Pius' twenty-three-year reign at the emperor's side—and not in the
provinces
A province is an administrative division within a country or state. The term derives from the ancient Roman , which was the major territorial and administrative unit of the Roman Empire's territorial possessions outside Italy. The term ''provi ...
, where most previous emperors had spent their early careers. Marcus made the necessary appointments:
Marcus Statius Priscus
Marcus Statius Priscus Licinius Italicus (''M. Statius M. f. Cl. Priscus Licinius Italicus'')The name ''M. Statius M. f. Cl. Priscus Licinius Italicus'' says he is the son of a Marcus as ''M. f.''; ''Cl.'' refers to the tribe he belonged to, which ...
, the governor of Britain, was sent to replace Severianus as governor of Cappadocia, and was in turn replaced by
Sextus Calpurnius Agricola
Sextus Calpurnius Agricola was a Roman senator and general active during the 2nd century. He was ''consul suffectus'' with Tiberius Claudius Julianus for the '' nundinium'' of September-October 154. Agricola is known primarily from inscription ...
.
[''HA Marcus'' 8.8; Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', 123, citing W. Eck, ''Die Satthalter der germ. Provinzen'' (1985), 65ff.]
More bad news arrived: Attidius Cornelianus' army had been defeated in battle against the Parthians, and retreated in disarray. Reinforcements were dispatched for the Parthian frontier.
Publius Julius Geminius Marcianus, an
African senator commanding
X ''Gemina'' at Vindobona (
Vienna
Vienna ( ; ; ) is the capital city, capital, List of largest cities in Austria, most populous city, and one of Federal states of Austria, nine federal states of Austria. It is Austria's primate city, with just over two million inhabitants. ...
), left for Cappadocia with
vexillations from the Danubian legions. Three full legions were also sent east:
I ''Minervia'' from
Bonn
Bonn () is a federal city in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia, located on the banks of the Rhine. With a population exceeding 300,000, it lies about south-southeast of Cologne, in the southernmost part of the Rhine-Ruhr region. This ...
in Upper Germany,
II ''Adiutrix'' from
Aquincum
Aquincum (, ) was an ancient city, situated on the northeastern borders of the province of Pannonia within the Roman Empire. The ruins of the city can be found in Budapest, the capital city of Hungary. It is believed that Marcus Aurelius wrote ...
, and
V ''Macedonica'' from
Troesmis
Troesmis was an ancient Dacian town and later ancient Roman city and legionary fortress, a major site situated on the Danube and forming a key part of the Limes Moesiae frontier system. Around the fortress the Geto-Dacian town developed.
It is ...
. The northern frontiers were strategically weakened; frontier governors were told to avoid conflict wherever possible. Attidius Cornelianus himself was replaced by M. Annius Libo, Marcus' first cousin. He was young—his first consulship was in 161, so he was probably in his early thirties—and, as a mere patrician, lacked military experience. Marcus had chosen a reliable man rather than a talented one.
Marcus took a four-day public holiday at
Alsium, a resort town on the
Etruria
Etruria ( ) was a region of Central Italy delimited by the rivers Arno and Tiber, an area that covered what is now most of Tuscany, northern Lazio, and north-western Umbria. It was inhabited by the Etruscans, an ancient civilization that f ...
n coast. He was too anxious to relax. Writing to his former tutor
Marcus Cornelius Fronto
Marcus Cornelius Fronto (c. 100late 160s AD), best known as Fronto, was a Roman grammarian, rhetorician, and advocate. Of Berber origin, he was born at Cirta (modern-day Constantine, Algeria) in Numidia. He was suffect consul for the '' nundiniu ...
, he declared that he would not speak about his holiday. Fronto replied ironically: "What? Do I not know that you went to Alsium with the intention of devoting yourself to games, joking and complete leisure for four whole days?" He encouraged Marcus to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Pius had enjoyed exercise in the ''
palaestra
A palaestra ( or ; also (chiefly British) palestra; ) was any site of a Greek wrestling school in antiquity. Events requiring little space, such as boxing and wrestling, occurred there. ''Palaistrai'' functioned both independently and as a part ...
'', fishing, and comedy), going so far as to write up a fable about the gods' division of the day between morning and evening—Marcus had apparently been spending most of his evenings on judicial matters instead of leisure. Marcus could not take Fronto's advice. "I have duties hanging over me that can hardly be begged off," he wrote back. Marcus put on Fronto's voice to chastise himself: "'Much good has my advice done you', you will say!" He had rested, and would rest often, but "—this devotion to duty! Who knows better than you how demanding it is!"
Fronto sent Marcus a selection of reading material, including Cicero's ''pro
lege Manilia'', in which the orator had argued in favor of
Pompey
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (; 29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), known in English as Pompey ( ) or Pompey the Great, was a Roman general and statesman who was prominent in the last decades of the Roman Republic. ...
taking supreme command in the
Mithridatic War. It was an apt reference (Pompey's war had taken him to Armenia), and may have had some impact on the decision to send Lucius to the eastern front. "You will find in it many chapters aptly suited to your present counsels, concerning the choice of army commanders, the interests of allies, the protection of provinces, the discipline of the soldiers, the qualifications required for commanders in the field and elsewhere
.. To settle his unease over the course of the Parthian war, Fronto wrote Marcus a long and considered letter, full of historical references. In modern editions of Fronto's works, it is labeled ''De bello Parthico'' (''On the Parthian War''). There had been reverses in Rome's past, Fronto writes, at
Allia, at
Caudium
Caudium (modern Montesarchio) was the main city of the ancient Caudini tribe in Samnium situated on the Appian Way between Benevento, Beneventum (modern Benevento) and Capua, in what is now southern Italy. It was 21 Roman miles from Capua, and 11 f ...
, at
Cannae, at
Numantia
Numantia () is an ancient Celtiberian settlement, whose remains are located on a hill known as Cerro de la Muela in the current municipality of Garray ( Soria), Spain.
Numantia is famous for its role in the Celtiberian Wars. In 153 BC, Num ...
,
Cirta
Cirta, also known by #Names, various other names in classical antiquity, antiquity, was the ancient Berbers, Berber, Punic people, Punic and Roman Empire, Roman settlement which later became Constantine, Algeria, Constantine, Algeria.
Cirta was ...
, and
Carrhae; under
Trajan
Trajan ( ; born Marcus Ulpius Traianus, 18 September 53) was a Roman emperor from AD 98 to 117, remembered as the second of the Five Good Emperors of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty. He was a philanthropic ruler and a successful soldier ...
,
Hadrian
Hadrian ( ; ; 24 January 76 – 10 July 138) was Roman emperor from 117 to 138. Hadrian was born in Italica, close to modern Seville in Spain, an Italic peoples, Italic settlement in Hispania Baetica; his branch of the Aelia gens, Aelia '' ...
, and Pius; but, in the end, Romans had always prevailed over their enemies: "always and everywhere
arshas changed our troubles into successes and our terrors into triumphs".
Lucius' dispatch and journey east, 162–163?
Over the winter of 161–62, as more bad news arrived—a rebellion was brewing in
Syria
Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
—it was decided that Lucius should direct the Parthian war in person. He was stronger and healthier than Marcus, the argument went, more suited to military activity. Lucius' biographer suggests ulterior motives: to restrain Lucius' debaucheries, to make him thrifty, to reform his morals by the terror of war, to realize that he was an emperor. Whatever the case, the
senate
A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...
gave its assent, and Lucius left. Marcus would remain in Rome; the city "demanded the presence of an emperor".
Titus Furius Victorinus, one of the two
praetorian prefect
The praetorian prefect (; ) was a high office in the Roman Empire. Originating as the commander of the Praetorian Guard, the office gradually acquired extensive legal and administrative functions, with its holders becoming the Emperor's chief ai ...
s, was sent with Lucius, as were a pair of senators,
Marcus Pontius Laelianus Larcius Sabinus and
Marcus Iallius Bassus, and a detachment of the
Praetorian Guard
The Praetorian Guard (Latin language, Latin: ''cohortes praetoriae'') was the imperial guard of the Imperial Roman army that served various roles for the Roman emperor including being a bodyguard unit, counterintelligence, crowd control and ga ...
.
Victorinus had previously served as
procurator of
Galatia
Galatia (; , ''Galatía'') was an ancient area in the highlands of central Anatolia, roughly corresponding to the provinces of Ankara and Eskişehir in modern Turkey. Galatia was named after the Gauls from Thrace (cf. Tylis), who settled here ...
, giving him some experience with eastern affairs.
[Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', 125, citing H.G. Pfalum, ''Les carrières procuratoriennes équestres sous le Haut-Empire romain I–III'' (Paris, 1960–61); ''Supplément'' (Paris, 1982), no. 139.] Moreover, he was far more qualified than his praetorian partner,
Sextus Cornelius Repentinus, who was said to owe his office to the influence of Pius' mistress
Galeria Lysistrate.
[''HA Pius'' 8.9; Birley, "Hadrian to the Antonines", 160–61.] Repentius had the rank of a senator, but no real access to senatorial circles—his was merely a decorative title. Since a prefect had to accompany the Guard, Victorinus was the clear choice.
Laelianus had been governor of both
Pannonia
Pannonia (, ) was a Roman province, province of the Roman Empire bounded on the north and east by the Danube, on the west by Noricum and upper Roman Italy, Italy, and on the southward by Dalmatia (Roman province), Dalmatia and upper Moesia. It ...
s and governor of Syria in 153; hence he had first-hand knowledge of the eastern army and military strategy on the frontiers. He was made ''
comes
''Comes'' (plural ''comites''), translated as count, was a Roman title, generally linked to a comitatus or comital office.
The word ''comes'' originally meant "companion" or "follower", deriving from "''com-''" ("with") and "''ire''" ("go"). Th ...
Augustorum'' ("companion of the emperors") for his service. Laelianus was, in the words of Fronto, "a serious man and an old-fashioned disciplinarian". Bassus had been governor of
Lower Moesia, and was also made ''comes''. Lucius selected his favorite freedmen, including Geminus, Agaclytus, Coedes, Eclectus, and Nicomedes, who gave up his duties as ''praefectus vehiculorum'' to run the commissariat of the expeditionary force. The
fleet of Misenum was charged with transporting the emperor and general communications and transport.
Lucius left in the summer of 162 to take a ship from
Brundisium; Marcus followed him as far as
Capua
Capua ( ; ) is a city and ''comune'' in the province of Caserta, in the region of Campania, southern Italy, located on the northeastern edge of the Campanian plain.
History Ancient era
The name of Capua comes from the Etruscan ''Capeva''. The ...
. Lucius feasted himself in the country houses along his route, and hunted at
Apulia
Apulia ( ), also known by its Italian language, Italian name Puglia (), is a Regions of Italy, region of Italy, located in the Southern Italy, southern peninsular section of the country, bordering the Adriatic Sea to the east, the Strait of Ot ...
. He fell ill at
Canosa, probably afflicted with a mild stroke, and took to bed. Marcus made prayers to the gods for his safety in front of the senate, and hurried south to see him. Fronto was upset at the news, but was reassured when Lucius sent him a letter describing his treatment and recovery. In his reply, Fronto urged his pupil to moderate his desires, and recommended a few days of quiet bedrest. Lucius was better after three days' fasting and a bloodletting. It was probably only a mild stroke.
Verus continued eastward via
Corinth
Corinth ( ; , ) is a municipality in Corinthia in Greece. The successor to the ancient Corinth, ancient city of Corinth, it is a former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese (region), Peloponnese, which is located in south-central Greece. Sin ...
and
Athens
Athens ( ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Greece, largest city of Greece. A significant coastal urban area in the Mediterranean, Athens is also the capital of the Attica (region), Attica region and is the southe ...
, accompanied by musicians and singers as if in a
royal progress. At Athens he stayed with
Herodes Atticus, and joined the
Eleusinian Mysteries
The Eleusinian Mysteries () were initiations held every year for the Cult (religious practice), cult of Demeter and Persephone based at the Panhellenic Sanctuary of Eleusis in ancient Greece. They are considered the "most famous of the secret rel ...
. During sacrifice, a falling star was observed in the sky, shooting west to east. He stopped in
Ephesus
Ephesus (; ; ; may ultimately derive from ) was an Ancient Greece, ancient Greek city on the coast of Ionia, in present-day Selçuk in İzmir Province, Turkey. It was built in the 10th century BC on the site of Apasa, the former Arzawan capital ...
, where he is attested at the estate of the local aristocrat
Publius Vedius Antoninus
Publius may refer to:
Roman name
* Publius (praenomen)
* Ancient Romans with the name:
** Publius Valerius Publicola (died 503 BC), Roman consul, co-founder of the Republic
** Publius Clodius Pulcher (c. 93 BC – 52 BC), Republican politician ...
, and made an unexpected stopover at
Erythrae, where an
elegiac
The adjective ''elegiac'' has two possible meanings. First, it can refer to something of, relating to, or involving, an elegy or something that expresses similar mournfulness or sorrow. Second, it can refer more specifically to poetry composed in ...
poem in the voice of the
local sibyl alludes to his visit. The journey continued by ship through the Aegean and the southern coasts of Asia Minor, lingering in the famed pleasure resorts of
Pamphylia
Pamphylia (; , ''Pamphylía'' ) was a region in the south of Anatolia, Asia Minor, between Lycia and Cilicia, extending from the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean to Mount Taurus (all in modern-day Antalya province, Turkey). It was bounded on the ...
and
Cilicia
Cilicia () is a geographical region in southern Anatolia, extending inland from the northeastern coasts of the Mediterranean Sea. Cilicia has a population ranging over six million, concentrated mostly at the Cilician plain (). The region inclu ...
, before arriving in
Antioch
Antioch on the Orontes (; , ) "Antioch on Daphne"; or "Antioch the Great"; ; ; ; ; ; ; . was a Hellenistic Greek city founded by Seleucus I Nicator in 300 BC. One of the most important Greek cities of the Hellenistic period, it served as ...
. It is not known how long Verus' journey east took; he might not have arrived in Antioch until after 162. Statius Priscus, meanwhile, must have already arrived in Cappadocia; he would earn fame in 163 for successful generalship.
Dissipation and logistics at Antioch, 162?–165

Lucius spent most of the campaign in Antioch, though he wintered at
Laodicea and summered at
Daphne
Daphne (; ; , , ), a figure in Greek mythology, is a naiad, a variety of female nymph associated with fountains, wells, springs, streams, brooks and other bodies of freshwater.
There are several versions of the myth in which she appears, but t ...
, a resort just outside Antioch. He took up a mistress named Panthea, from
Smyrna
Smyrna ( ; , or ) was an Ancient Greece, Ancient Greek city located at a strategic point on the Aegean Sea, Aegean coast of Anatolia, Turkey. Due to its advantageous port conditions, its ease of defence, and its good inland connections, Smyrna ...
. The biographer calls her a "low-born girl-friend", but she is probably closer to
Lucian
Lucian of Samosata (Λουκιανὸς ὁ Σαμοσατεύς, 125 – after 180) was a Hellenized Syrian satirist, rhetorician and pamphleteer who is best known for his characteristic tongue-in-cheek style, with which he frequently ridi ...
's "woman of perfect beauty", more beautiful than any of
Phidias
Phidias or Pheidias (; , ''Pheidias''; ) was an Ancient Greek sculptor, painter, and architect, active in the 5th century BC. His Statue of Zeus at Olympia was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Phidias also designed the statues of ...
and
Praxiteles' statues. Polite, caring, humble, she sang to the lyre perfectly and spoke clear
Ionic Greek
Ionic or Ionian Greek () was a subdialect of the Eastern or Attic–Ionic dialect group of Ancient Greek. The Ionic group traditionally comprises three dialectal varieties that were spoken in Euboea (West Ionic), the northern Cyclades (Centr ...
, spiced with Attic wit. Panthea read Lucian's first draft, and criticized him for flattery. He had compared her to a goddess, which frightened her—she did not want to become the next
Cassiopeia
Cassiopeia or Cassiopea may refer to:
Greek mythology
* Cassiopeia (mother of Andromeda), queen of Aethiopia and mother of Andromeda
* Cassiopeia (wife of Phoenix), wife of Phoenix, king of Phoenicia
* Cassiopeia, wife of Epaphus, king of Egy ...
. She had power, too. She made Lucius shave his beard for her. The Syrians mocked him for this, as they did for much else.
Critics declaimed Lucius' luxurious lifestyle. He had taken to gambling, they said; he would "dice the whole night through". He enjoyed the company of actors. He made a special request for dispatches from Rome, to keep him updated on how his chariot teams were doing. He brought a golden statue of the Greens' horse Volucer around with him, as a token of his team spirit. Fronto defended his pupil against some of these claims: the Roman people needed Lucius'
bread and circuses to keep them in check.
This, at least, is how the biographer has it. The whole section of the ''vita'' dealing with Lucius' debaucheries (''HA Verus'' 4.4–6.6) is an insertion into a narrative otherwise entirely cribbed from an earlier source. Some few passages seem genuine; others take and elaborate something from the original. The rest is by the biographer himself, relying on nothing better than his own imagination.
Lucius faced quite a task. Fronto described the scene in terms recalling
Corbulo's arrival
one hundred years before. The Syrian army had turned soft during the east's long peace. They spent more time at the city's open-air bars than in their quarters. Under Lucius, training was stepped up. Pontius Laelianus ordered that their saddles be stripped of their padding. Gambling and drinking were sternly policed. Fronto wrote that Lucius was on foot at the head of his army as often as on horseback. He personally inspected soldiers in the field and at camp, including the sick bay.
Lucius sent Fronto few messages at the beginning of the war. He sent Fronto a letter apologizing for his silence. He would not detail plans that could change within a day, he wrote. Moreover, there was little thus far to show for his work: "not even yet has anything been accomplished such as to make me wish to invite you to share in the joy". Lucius did not want Fronto to suffer the anxieties that had kept him up day and night. One reason for Lucius' reticence may have been the collapse of Parthian negotiations after the Roman conquest of Armenia. Lucius' presentation of terms was seen as cowardice. The Parthians were not in the mood for peace.
[Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', 130; "Hadrian to the Antonines", 162.]
Lucius needed to make extensive imports into Antioch, so he opened a sailing route up the
Orontes. Because the river breaks across a cliff before reaching the city, Lucius ordered that a new canal be dug. After the project was completed, the Orontes' old riverbed dried up, exposing massive bones—the bones of a
giant
In folklore, giants (from Ancient Greek: ''wiktionary:gigas, gigas'', cognate wiktionary:giga-, giga-) are beings of humanoid appearance, but are at times prodigious in size and strength or bear an otherwise notable appearance. The word ''gia ...
.
Pausanias says they were from a beast "more than eleven
cubit
The cubit is an ancient unit of length based on the distance from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger. It was primarily associated with the Sumerians, Egyptians, and Israelites. The term ''cubit'' is found in the Bible regarding Noah ...
s" tall;
Philostratus
Philostratus or Lucius Flavius Philostratus (; ; 170s – 240s AD), called "the Athenian", was a Greek sophist of the Roman imperial period. His father was a minor sophist of the same name. He flourished during the reign of Septimius Severus ...
says that it was "thirty cubits" tall. The oracle at
Claros declared that they were the bones of the river's spirit.
In the middle of the war, perhaps in autumn 163 or early 164, Lucius made a trip to Ephesus to be married to Marcus' daughter
Lucilla. Lucilla's thirteenth birthday was in March 163; whatever the date of her marriage, she was not yet fifteen. Marcus had moved up the date: perhaps stories of Panthea had disturbed him.
[Birley, ''Marcus Aurelius'', 131.] Lucilla was accompanied by her mother
Faustina and
Marcus Vettulenus Civica Barbarus, the half-brother of Lucius' father. Marcus may have planned to accompany them all the way to Smyrna (the biographer says he told the senate he would); this did not happen. Marcus only accompanied the group as far as Brundisium, where they boarded a ship for the east. Marcus returned to Rome immediately thereafter, and sent out special instructions to his proconsuls not to give the group any official reception. Lucilla would bear three of Lucius' children in the coming years. Lucilla became Lucilla Augusta.
Counterattack and victory, 163–166
The Legions I ''Minervia'', commanded by
M. Claudius Fronto and V ''Macedonica'', commanded by
P. Martius Verus, served under
Marcus Statius Priscus
Marcus Statius Priscus Licinius Italicus (''M. Statius M. f. Cl. Priscus Licinius Italicus'')The name ''M. Statius M. f. Cl. Priscus Licinius Italicus'' says he is the son of a Marcus as ''M. f.''; ''Cl.'' refers to the tribe he belonged to, which ...
in Armenia, achieving success during the campaign season of 163, culminating with the capture of the Armenian capital
Artaxata
Artashat (), Greek language, Hellenized as Artaxata () and Artaxiasata (), was a major city and commercial center of ancient Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity), Armenia that served as the capital of the Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity), Kingdom of Ar ...
. At the end of the year, Verus took the title ''Armeniacus'', despite having never seen combat; Marcus declined to accept the title until the following year. When Lucius was hailed as ''imperator'' again, however, Marcus did not hesitate to take the title ''Imperator II'' with him. The army of Syria was reinforced by II ''Adiutrix'' and Danubian legions under X ''Geminas legate Geminius Marcianus.

Occupied Armenia was reconstructed on Roman terms. In 164, a new capital, ''Kaine Polis'' ("New City" in Greek), replaced Artaxata. On Birley's reckoning, it was thirty miles closer to the Roman border.
Detachments from Cappadocian legions are attested at
Echmiadzin, beneath the southern face of
Mount Ararat
Mount Ararat, also known as Masis or Mount Ağrı, is a snow-capped and dormant compound volcano in Eastern Turkey, easternmost Turkey. It consists of two major volcanic cones: Greater Ararat and Little Ararat. Greater Ararat is the highest p ...
, 400 km east of
Satala. It would have meant a march of twenty days or more, through mountainous terrain, from the Roman border; a "remarkable example of imperialism", in the words of
Fergus Millar. A new king was installed: a Roman senator of consular rank and Arsacid descent,
C. Iulius Sohaemus. He may not even have been crowned in Armenia; the ceremony may have taken place in Antioch, or even Ephesus. Sohaemus was hailed on the imperial coinage of 164 under the legend : Verus sat on a throne with his staff while Sohamenus stood before him, saluting the emperor.
In 163, while Statius Priscus was occupied in Armenia, the Parthians intervened in
Osroene
Osroene or Osrhoene (; ) was an ancient kingdom and region in Upper Mesopotamia. The ''Kingdom of Osroene'', also known as the "Kingdom of Edessa" ( / "Kingdom of Urhay"), according to the name of its capital city (now Urfa, Şanlıurfa, Turkey), ...
, a Roman client in upper Mesopotamia, just east of Syria, with its capital at
Edessa
Edessa (; ) was an ancient city (''polis'') in Upper Mesopotamia, in what is now Urfa or Şanlıurfa, Turkey. It was founded during the Hellenistic period by Macedonian general and self proclaimed king Seleucus I Nicator (), founder of the Sel ...
. They deposed the country's leader, Mannus, and replaced him with their own nominee, who would remain in office until 165. (The Edessene coinage record actually begins at this point, with issues showing Vologases IV on the obverse and "Wael the king" (
Syriac: W'L MLK') on the reverse.
[Millar, ''Near East'', 112.]) In response, Roman forces were moved downstream, to cross the Euphrates at a more southerly point.
On the evidence of Lucian, the Parthians still held the southern, Roman bank of the Euphrates (in Syria) as late as 163 (he refers to a battle at Sura, which is on the southern side of the river). Before the end of the year, however, Roman forces had moved north to occupy Dausara and Nicephorium on the northern, Parthian bank. Soon after the conquest of the north bank of the Euphrates, other Roman forces moved on Osroene from Armenia, taking Anthemusia, a town south-west of Edessa. There was little movement in 164; most of the year was spent on preparations for a renewed assault on Parthian territory.
In 165, Roman forces, perhaps led by Martius Verus and the V ''Macedonica'', moved on Mesopotamia. Edessa was re-occupied, Mannus re-installed. His coinage resumed, too: 'Ma'nu the king' (Syriac: M'NW MLK') or Antonine dynasts on the obverse, and 'King Mannos, friend of the Romans' (Greek: ''Basileus Mannos Philorōmaios'') on the reverse.
The Parthians retreated to
Nisibis
Nusaybin () is a municipality and Districts of Turkey, district of Mardin Province, Turkey. Its area is 1,079 km2, and its population is 115,586 (2022). The city is populated by Kurds of different tribal affiliation.
Nusaybin is separated ...
, but this too was besieged and captured. The Parthian army dispersed in the Tigris; their general Chosrhoes swam down the river and made his hideout in a cave. A second force, under Avidius Cassius and the
III ''Gallica'', moved down the Euphrates, and fought a major battle at
Dura-Europos
Dura-Europos was a Hellenistic, Parthian Empire, Parthian, and Ancient Rome, Roman border city built on an escarpment above the southwestern bank of the Euphrates river. It is located near the village of Al-Salihiyah, Deir ez-Zor Governorate, S ...
. In this battle, a certain
Priscus
Priscus of Panium (; ; 410s/420s AD – after 472 AD) was an Eastern Roman diplomat and Greek historian and rhetorician (or sophist)...: "For information about Attila, his court and the organization of life generally in his realm we have the ...
, as retold by
Lucian
Lucian of Samosata (Λουκιανὸς ὁ Σαμοσατεύς, 125 – after 180) was a Hellenized Syrian satirist, rhetorician and pamphleteer who is best known for his characteristic tongue-in-cheek style, with which he frequently ridi ...
, reports that the Romans "slaughtered 70,236 of the Enemy"
[Lucian, ''Historia Quomodo Conscribenda'' 20.] while only suffering 2 killed and 7 wounded, however
Lucian
Lucian of Samosata (Λουκιανὸς ὁ Σαμοσατεύς, 125 – after 180) was a Hellenized Syrian satirist, rhetorician and pamphleteer who is best known for his characteristic tongue-in-cheek style, with which he frequently ridi ...
himself denies this claim.
By the end of 165, Cassius' army had reached the twin metropolises of Mesopotamia:
Seleucia
Seleucia (; ), also known as or or Seleucia ad Tigrim, was a major Mesopotamian city, located on the west bank of the Tigris River within the present-day Baghdad Governorate in Iraq. It was founded around 305 BC by Seleucus I Nicator as th ...
on the right bank of the Tigris and
Ctesiphon
Ctesiphon ( ; , ''Tyspwn'' or ''Tysfwn''; ; , ; Thomas A. Carlson et al., “Ctesiphon — ܩܛܝܣܦܘܢ ” in The Syriac Gazetteer last modified July 28, 2014, http://syriaca.org/place/58.) was an ancient city in modern Iraq, on the eastern ba ...
on the left. Ctesiphon was taken and its royal palace set to flame. The citizens of Seleucia, still largely Greek (the city had been commissioned and settled as a capital of the
Seleucid Empire
The Seleucid Empire ( ) was a Greek state in West Asia during the Hellenistic period. It was founded in 312 BC by the Macedonian general Seleucus I Nicator, following the division of the Macedonian Empire founded by Alexander the Great ...
, one of
Alexander the Great
Alexander III of Macedon (; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), most commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip ...
's
successor kingdoms), opened its gates to the invaders. The city got sacked nonetheless, leaving a black mark on Lucius' reputation. Excuses were sought, or invented: the official version (promulgated, according to the ''Historia Augusta'', by
Asinius Quadratus) had it that the Seleuceni broke faith first. Whatever the case, the sacking marks a particularly destructive chapter in Seleucia's long decline.
[John F. Matthews, ''The Roman Empire of Ammianus'' (London: Duckworth, 1989), 142–43.] During the sacking, Roman troops stole the statue of Apollo Comaeus from its temple and brought it back to Rome, where it was installed at the
temple of the Palatine Apollo. This blasphemy may have been on Marcus' mind when he called a ''
lectisternium
The lectisternium was an ancient Roman propitiatory ceremony, consisting of a meal offered to gods and goddesses. The word derives from ''lectum sternere'', "to spread (or "drape") a couch." The deities were represented by their busts or statu ...
'', a great meal offered to the gods, at the beginning of the
Marcomannic Wars
The Marcomannic Wars () were a series of wars lasting from about AD 166 until 180. These wars pitted the Roman Empire against principally the Germanic peoples, Germanic Marcomanni and Quadi and the Sarmatian Iazyges; there were related conflicts ...
(''ca''. 167) to ward off the evils then being visited on the state.
Cassius' army, although suffering from a shortage of supplies and the
effects of a plague, contracted in Seleucia, made it back to Roman territory safely. Iunius Maximus, a young ''tribunus laticlavius'' serving in III ''Gallica'' under Cassius, took the news of the victory to Rome. Maximus received a generous cash bounty (''dona'') for bringing the good news, and immediate promotion to the
quaestor
A quaestor ( , ; ; "investigator") was a public official in ancient Rome. There were various types of quaestors, with the title used to describe greatly different offices at different times.
In the Roman Republic, quaestors were elected officia ...
ship. Lucius took the title ''Parthicus Maximus'', and he and Marcus were hailed as ''imperatores'' again, earning the title ''Imp. III''. Cassius' army returned to the field in 166, crossing over the Tigris into
Media
Media may refer to:
Communication
* Means of communication, tools and channels used to deliver information or data
** Advertising media, various media, content, buying and placement for advertising
** Interactive media, media that is inter ...
. Lucius took the title ''Medicus'', and the emperors were again hailed as ''imperatores'', becoming ''Imp. IV'' in imperial titulature. Marcus too took the ''Parthicus Maximus'' now, after another tactful delay.
Conclusion of the war, mid-160s–167
Most of the credit for the war's success must be ascribed to subordinate generals. The forces that advanced on Osroene were led by M. Claudius Fronto, an Asian provincial of Greek descent who had led I Minervia in Armenia under Priscus. He was probably the first senator in his family. Fronto was consul for 165, probably in honor of the capture of Edessa. Claudius Fronto returned to Italy for his consulship; the
governor of Syria,
Gnaeus Julius Verus, also returned.
Publius Martius Verus had led V Macedonica to the front, and also served under Priscus. Martius Verus was a westerner, whose ''patria'' was perhaps
Tolosa in
Gallia Narbonensis
Gallia Narbonensis (Latin for "Gaul of Narbonne", from its chief settlement) was a Roman province located in Occitania and Provence, in Southern France. It was also known as Provincia Nostra ("Our Province"), because it was the first ...
. The most prominent general, however, was
C. Avidius Cassius, commander of III Gallica, one of the Syrian legions. Cassius was a young senator, the son of
Gaius Avidius Heliodorus, a noted orator who was augustal prefect of Egypt from 137 to 142 AD under Hadrian, and wife Julia Cassia Alexandra. Cassius also, with no small sense of self-worth, claimed descent from the
Seleucid kings and the
Julio-Claudians
The Julio-Claudian dynasty comprised the first five Roman emperors: Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero.
This line of emperors ruled the Roman Empire, from its formation (under Augustus, in 27 BC) until the last of the line, Emper ...
through his mother
Julia Cassia Alexandra, who descended (via
Junia Lepida) from
Julia, daughter and only child of
Augustus
Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian (), was the founder of the Roman Empire, who reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in A ...
. Cassius and Martius Verus, still probably in their mid-thirties, took the consulships for 166. After their consulships, they were made governors: Cassius, of Syria; Martius Verus, of Cappadocia.
On the return from the campaign, Lucius was awarded with a
triumph; the parade was unusual because it included the two emperors, their sons and unmarried daughters as a big family celebration. Marcus Aurelius' two sons,
Commodus
Commodus (; ; 31 August 161 – 31 December 192) was Roman emperor from 177 to 192, first serving as nominal co-emperor under his father Marcus Aurelius and then ruling alone from 180. Commodus's sole reign is commonly thought to mark the end o ...
five years old and
Marcus Annius Verus of three, were elevated to the status of Caesar for the occasion.
A statue base survives in
Sardis
Sardis ( ) or Sardes ( ; Lydian language, Lydian: , romanized: ; ; ) was an ancient city best known as the capital of the Lydian Empire. After the fall of the Lydian Empire, it became the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, Persian Lydia (satrapy) ...
to commemorate Lucius' victory (the emperor had presumably visited the city on his return to Rome). The wealthy sophist T. Flavius Damianus also hosted the emperor and his army during their return trip.
Nisibis on the upper Euphrates remained in Roman hands for several decades after the end of the war. By the mid-3rd century, when it was frequently contested by and exchanged between Persia and Rome, it had taken on the appearances of a typical Roman garrison town.
[C.S. Lightfoot, "Facts and Fiction: The Third Siege of Nisibis (A.D. 350)", ''Historia'' 37:1 (1988): 106–7.]
Notes
Citations
All citations to the ''Historia Augusta'' are to individual biographies, and are marked with a "''HA''". Citations to the works of Fronto are cross-referenced to C.R. Haines' Loeb edition.
References
Ancient sources
*Ammianus Marcellinus. ''Res Gestae''.
:*Yonge, Charles Duke, trans. ''Roman History''. London: Bohn, 1862. Online a
Tertullian Accessed 15 August 2009.
:*Rolfe, J.C., trans. ''History''. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1939–52. Online a
Accessed 15 August 2009.
*Cassius Dio. ''Roman History''.
:*Cary, Earnest, trans. ''Roman History''. 9 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1914–27. Online a
Accessed 26 August 2009.
*''Epitome de Caesaribus''.
:*Banchich, Thomas M., trans. ''A Booklet About the Style of Life and the Manners of the Imperatores''. ''Canisius College Translated Texts'' 1. Buffalo, NY: Canisius College, 2009. Online a
Accessed 31 August 2009.
*Fronto, Marcus Cornelius.
:*Haines, Charles Reginald, trans. ''The Correspondence of Marcus Cornelius Fronto''. 2 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1920. Online at the Internet Archive: Vol
12 Accessed 26 August 2009.
*Galen.
:*''ad Pisonem de Theriaca''.
:*''de Antidotis''.
*Lucian.
:*''Alexander''.
::*Harmon, A.M., trans. ''The Works of Lucian of Samosata''. 9 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1936. ''Alexander'' online a
Accessed 26 August 2009.
:*''Historia Quomodo Conscribenda'' (''The Way to Write History'').
::*Fowler, H.W., and H.G., trans. ''The Works of Lucian of Samosata''. 4 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1905. ''The Way to Write History'', in volume 2, online a
based on th
Gutenberge-text. Accessed 26 August 2009.
:*''Imagines'' (''Essays in Portraiture''
'Images''.
::*Fowler, H.W., and H.G., trans. ''The Works of Lucian of Samosata''. 4 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1905. ''A Portrait Study'', in volume 3, online a
Sacred Texts based on th
Gutenberge-text. Accessed 26 August 2009.
:*''Pro Imaginibus'' (''Essays in Portraiture Defended'').
::*Fowler, H.W., and H.G., trans. ''The Works of Lucian of Samosata''. 4 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1905. ''Defence of the 'Portrait-Study, in volume 3, online a
based on th
Gutenberge-text. Accessed 26 August 2009.
*Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. ''Meditations''.
:*Farquharson, A.S.L., trans. ''Meditations''. New York: Knopf, 1946, rept. 1992.
*Pausanias. ''Description of Greece''.
:*Jones, W.H.S., and H.A. Omerod, trans. ''Pausanias' Description of Greece''. 4 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1918. Online a
an
Perseus at Tufts Accessed 27 August 2009.
*Philostratus. ''Heroicus'' (''On Heroes'').
:*Aiken, Ellen Bradshaw, and Jennifer K. Berenson Maclean, trans. ''On Heroes''. Washington, DC: Harvard University Center for Hellenic Studies, 2007. Online a
Harvard University Centre for Hellenic Studies. Accessed 18 September 2015.
*''Scriptores Historiae Augustae'' (Authors of the Historia Augusta). ''Historia Augusta'' (''Augustan History'').
:*Magie, David, trans. ''Historia Augusta''. 3 vols. Loeb ed. London: Heinemann, 1921–32. Online a
Accessed 26 August 2009.
:*Birley, Anthony R., trans. ''Lives of the Later Caesars''. London: Penguin, 1976.
*''Vita Abercii''.
Modern sources
*Astarita, Maria L. ''Avidio Cassio'' (in Italian). Rome: Edizione di Storia e Letteratura, 1983.
*Birley, Anthony R. ''Marcus Aurelius: A Biography''. New York: Routledge, 1966, rev. 1987.
*
*Champlin, Edward. "The Chronology of Fronto." ''Journal of Roman Studies'' 64 (1974): 136–59.
*Champlin, Edward. ''Fronto and Antonine Rome''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980.
*Millar, Fergus. ''The Roman Near East: 31 BC – AD 337''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.
*McLynn, Frank. ''Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor''. London: Bodley Head, 2009.
* Robertson, D
''How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius'' New York: St. Martin's Press, 2019.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Roman-Parthian War of 161-166
160s conflicts
160s in the Roman Empire
2nd century in Iran
Military campaigns involving the Roman Empire
Lucius Verus
161-166
Wars involving the Parthian Empire
Parthia
Parthia ( ''Parθava''; ''Parθaw''; ''Pahlaw'') is a historical region located in northeastern Greater Iran. It was conquered and subjugated by the empire of the Medes during the 7th century BC, was incorporated into the subsequent Achaemeni ...