Republic Of Indonesia (1949–50)

Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian and Pacific oceans. Comprising over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guinea, Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagic state and the 14th-largest country by area, at . With over 280 million people, Indonesia is the world's fourth-most-populous country and the most populous Muslim-majority country. Java, the world's most populous island, is home to more than half of the country's population.

Indonesia operates as a presidential republic with an elected legislature and consists of 38 provinces, nine of which have special autonomous status. Jakarta, the largest city, is the world's second-most-populous urban area. Indonesia shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, Timor-Leste, and the eastern part of Malaysia, as well as maritime borders with Singapore, Peninsular Malaysia, Vietnam, Thailand, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and India. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity.

The Indonesian archipelago has been a valuable region for trade since at least the seventh century, when Sumatra's Srivijaya and later Java's Majapahit kingdoms engaged in commerce with entities from mainland China and the Indian subcontinent. Over the centuries, local rulers assimilated foreign influences, leading to the flourishing of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms. Sunni traders and Sufi scholars later brought Islam, and European powers fought one another to monopolise trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World War II and has since faced challenges such as separatism, corruption, and natural disasters, alongside democratisation and rapid economic growth.

Indonesian society comprises hundreds of ethnic and linguistic groups, with Javanese being the largest. The nation's identity is unified under the motto ''Bhinneka Tunggal Ika'', defined by a national language, cultural and religious pluralism, a history of colonialism, and rebellion against it. A newly industrialised country, Indonesia's economy ranks as the world's 16th-largest by nominal GDP and the 7th-largest by PPP. As the world's third-largest democracy and a middle power in global affairs, the country is a member of several multilateral organisations, including the United Nations, World Trade Organization, G20, MIKTA, BRICS and a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, East Asia Summit, APEC and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.

Etymology

The name ''Indonesia'' derives from the Greek words () and (), meaning "Indian islands". The name dates back to the 19th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms ''Indunesians''—and, his preference, ''Malayunesians''—for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malay Archipelago". In the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used ''Indonesia'' as a synonym for ''Indian Archipelago''. Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use ''Indonesia''. They preferred ''Malay Archipelago'' (); the ''Netherlands East Indies'' (), popularly ; ''the East'' (); and .

After 1900, ''Indonesia'' became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression. Adolf Bastian of the University of Berlin popularised the name through his book . The first native scholar to use the name was Ki Hajar Dewantara, who established a press bureau in the Netherlands, , in 1913.

History

Early history

The Indonesian archipelago has been inhabited since the time of ''homo erectus'' or "Java Man," with fossils dating back 2 million to 500,000 BCE. Fossils of ''homo floresiensis'', found on Flores, date around 700,000 to 60,000 BCE, while ''homo sapiens'' arrived around 43,000 BCE. Sulawesi and Borneo are home to the world's oldest known cave paintings, dating back 40,000 to 60,000 years, and megalithic sites such as western Java's '' Gunung Padang'', Sulawesi's '' Lore Lindu'', as well as Sumatra's Nias and Sumba reflect early human settlements and ceremonial practices.

Around 2,000 BCE, Austronesian peoples began arriving in Southeast Asia from the island now known as Taiwan, gradually displacing native Melanesians to the far eastern part of the archipelago as they spread east, and would eventually form the majority of Indonesia's modern population. Favourable agricultural conditions and advancements like wet-field rice cultivation by the 8th century BCE enabled the growth of villages and kingdoms by the first century CE. The archipelago's strategic location fostered inter-island and international exchange with civilisations from the Indian subcontinent and mainland China, profoundly influencing Indonesian history and culture through trade.

By the 7th century CE, the Srivijaya naval kingdom thrived on trade, adopting Hindu and Buddhist influences. The 8th to 10th centuries saw the rise and decline of the Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties, leaving monumental legacies like the Borobudur and Prambanan temples. After the failed Mongol invasion of Java in the late 13th century, the Hindu Majapahit kingdom rose to dominate much of the archipelago under Gajah Mada's leadership—a period often called the "Golden Age" of Indonesian history. Islam arrived in the 13th century in northern Sumatra, and following gradual adoption in other islands, it became the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the 16th century, blending with pre-existing traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture, particularly in Java.

Colonial era

In 1512, Europeans began arriving in the archipelago, led by Portuguese traders under Francisco Serrão, to seek a monopoly of the lucrative spice trade in the Maluku Islands. Dutch and British traders soon followed, with the former establishing the Dutch East India Company (''Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie'', VOC) in 1602, which eventually became the dominant European power for almost two centuries. After the VOC's dissolution in 1799 due to bankruptcy, the Dutch East Indies was established as a nationalised colony, marking the beginning of formal colonial rule by the Netherlands. Over the next century and a half, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous, as they faced continuous rebellions from local leaders like Prince Diponegoro in central Java, Imam Bonjol in central Sumatra, Pattimura in Maluku, and fighters in Aceh. Dutch dominance only extended to Indonesia's modern boundaries in the early 20th century, with the establishment of Dutch posts in New Guinea.

During World War II, the Japanese invasion and occupation of the Indies ended Dutch rule and encouraged Indonesia's independence movement. Only two days after Japan's surrender in August 1945, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta issued the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, and they became the country's first president and vice-president, along with Sutan Sjahrir as Prime Minister. The Netherlands attempted to re-establish their rule, prompting the start of Indonesia's war of independence against the Dutch. The conflict lasted until 1949, when the Dutch recognised Indonesian independence in the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference following international pressure. Despite political, social, and sectarian divisions, Indonesians found unity in their fight for independence.

Post-World War II

Sukarno shifted Indonesia from democracy to authoritarianism and maintained power by balancing the opposing forces of political Islam, the military, and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI). Tensions between the latter two culminated in an attempted coup in 1965, leading to a violent anti-communist purge led by the Army's Major General Suharto that killed at least 500,000 people and imprisoned around a million more. The PKI was blamed for the coup and destroyed, weakening Sukarno's power. Suharto capitalised on this, becoming President in 1968 and establishing a US-backed "New Order" administration, which fostered foreign direct investment and drove three decades of substantial economic growth.

Indonesia was the country worst affected by the 1997 Asian financial crisis, which brought out widespread discontent with the New Order's corruption and political suppression and ultimately ended Suharto's rule. In 1999, East Timor seceded after a controversial 25-year occupation following Indonesia's 1975 invasion. Since 1998, Indonesia has strengthened democracy by granting regional autonomy and holding the first direct presidential election in 2004.

Political, economic and social instability and terrorism were persistent in the 2000s. The economy has performed strongly since 2007, although corruption remains a chronic issue. Relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious, but sectarian discontent and violence remain problematic in some areas. A political settlement to a separatist insurgency in Aceh was achieved in 2005.

Geography

The southernmost country in Asia, Indonesia lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N and longitudes 95°E and 141°E. It is also a transcontinental country, spanning Southeast Asia and Oceania and is the world's largest archipelagic state, stretching from east to west and from north to south. The exact number of Indonesia's islands varies according to different sources, usually ranging from 13,000 to 17,000, with around 922 permanently inhabited. Its five largest islands are Sumatra, Java, Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), Sulawesi, and New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea).

The country features diverse topography, including towering mountains, vast lakes, and extensive river systems. At , Puncak Jaya is Indonesia's highest peak, while Lake Toba in Sumatra, covering , is the largest lake. The country's major rivers, primarily in Kalimantan, include Kapuas, Barito and Mahakam, serving as vital transportation and communication routes for remote riverine communities.

Climate

Indonesia's equatorial position ensures a relatively stable climate year-round, characterised by two main seasons: the dry season from May to October and the wet season from November to April, with no extremes of summer and winter. The climate is predominantly tropical rainforest, with cooler climates in mountainous areas over above sea level. The oceanic climate (Köppen ''Cfb'') prevails in highland areas adjacent to rainforest climates, with uniform precipitation year-round. In highland areas near the tropical monsoon and tropical savanna climates, the subtropical highland climate (Köppen ''Cwb'') is more pronounced during the dry season. There is a variation in rainfall patterns, with regions like western Sumatra, Java, and the interiors of Kalimantan and Papua receiving more precipitation, while areas closer to Australia, such as Nusa Tenggara, are drier. The warm waters covering 81% of Indonesia's area keep land temperatures stable, with high humidity (70-90%) and moderate, predictable winds influenced by monsoon cycles. Major weather hazards include strong currents in straits, such as the Lombok and Sape Straits, rather than typhoons or storms.

Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from the projected effects of climate change, including a temperature rise of by 2050 due to unreduced emissions. This warming could intensify droughts, disrupt rainfall patterns critical to agriculture, and increase occurrences of food shortages, diseases, and wildfires. Rising sea levels would also threaten densely populated coastal regions, and impoverished communities are expected to be disproportionately affected by climate change.

Geology

Indonesia's geology is shaped by its position on the Pacific Ring of Fire, where the Indo-Australian and Pacific plates subduct beneath the Eurasian plate, where they melt at about deep. This tectonic activity makes the region highly unstable with volcanoes and earthquakes. A chain of volcanoes stretches from Sumatra through Java, Bali and the Lesser Sunda Islands, and the Banda Islands of Maluku to northeastern Sulawesi. Of the 400 volcanoes, around 130 are active. While volcanic ash has made agriculture unpredictable in some areas, it has also created fertile soils that have historically sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali. Between 1972 and 1991, Java experienced a total of 29 volcanic eruptions.

The archipelago has witnessed several powerful volcanic eruptions with global repercussions. A massive supervolcano erupted with a maximum volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 8 at present-day Lake Toba around 74,000 BCE, causing a global volcanic winter, cooling the climate, and possibly influencing human evolution. The eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815, the most recently confirmed VEI-7 eruption, made much of the Northern Hemisphere without summer in 1816. The eruption of Mount Krakatoa in 1883, a VEI-6 eruption, produced the loudest sound in recorded history, with additional effects around the world years after the event. Recent catastrophic disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the 2018 Sulawesi earthquake.

Biodiversity

Recognised by Conservation International as one of 17 megadiverse countries, Indonesia hosts one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity due to its tropical climate, large size, and archipelagic geography. The country's flora and fauna include a mix of Asian and Australasian species. The Sunda Shelf islands (Sumatra, Java, and Borneo) have a wealth of Asian fauna as they were once linked to mainland Asia, while Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands, Maluku and Papua evolved unique ecosystems due to their separation from the continental landmasses. In terms of total endemic species, the Indonesian archipelago ranks among the highest globally.

The country also boasts of coastline, featuring diverse sea and coastal ecosystems, such as dunes and mangroves, as well as coral reefs in the Coral Triangle that harbour the highest diversity of coral reef fish globally, with over 2,000 species. The Wallace Line, described by English naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace, marks the biogeographical divide between Asian and Australasian species, with the region between the Wallace and Weber Lines (called Wallacea) hosting unique biodiversity as described in Wallace's 1869 book, ''The Malay Archipelago''. Indonesia's extensive forests, comprising 83% of Southeast Asia's old-growth forests, are deemed crucial for the region's ecological balance and carbon storage.

Indonesia faces severe environmental challenges due to extensive deforestation, peatland destruction, and over-exploitation of resources, driven by industries such as logging, plantations and agriculture since the 1970s, and in most recent years, palm oil. Forest cover declined from 87% in 1950 to 48% in 2022, highlighting the country as a leading forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases. These issues are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance. They also threaten indigenous and endemic species, with the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listing many as critically endangered, such as the Bali myna, Sumatran orangutan, and Javan rhinoceros. Environmental degradation has prompted some academics to label these activities as ecocide.

Conservation

As of 2023, Indonesia has designated 21.3% of its land as protected areas and aims to align its strategy with the 2022 Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. Additionally, 411 marine reserves account for 9% of the country's maritime area, with a target to increase this to 30% by 2045. However, a recent study highlights that the current efforts are off track and existing marine reserves are poorly managed. Approximately 390 marine areas are managed by government bodies, communities, and other sectors, with potential for classification as other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs), though there is no national mechanism for reporting them.

Indonesia's conservation framework includes 55 national parks, covering around 9% of the country's surface area. Among these, nine are predominantly marine parks, with six recognised as World Heritage Sites, seven as part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves and five wetlands of international importance under the 1971 Ramsar Convention. Notably, Indonesia has over 100 marine protected areas spanning 15.7 million hectares as of 2012, and these are managed by the Ministry of Forestry and local governments. Previous targets included reaching 20 million hectares by 2020 under former President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono's 2009 initiative and 10% of territorial waters, or 31 million hectares.

Government and politics

Indonesia is a presidential republic. Following the fall of the New Order in 1998, sweeping amendments to the Constitution of Indonesia restructured the state's executive, legislative, and judicial branches while maintaining a balance between its unitary state framework and greater decentralisation to regional governments. The president serves as head of state, head of government, and commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces (''Tentara Nasional Indonesia'', TNI) and oversees domestic and foreign policies. Presidents may serve up to two consecutive five-year terms.

The People's Consultative Assembly (''Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat'', MPR) is Indonesia's highest representative body, responsible for amending the constitution, inaugurating and impeaching the president, and formalising state policies. It consists of two houses: the People's Representative Council (''Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat'', DPR), which has 580 members and handles legislation and executive oversight, and the Regional Representative Council (''Dewan Perwakilan Daerah'', DPD), which has 152 members and focuses on regional matters. Since 1998, reforms have significantly enhanced the DPR's governance functionality. The DPD represents the interests of the diverse regions of Indonesia.

Indonesia’s judiciary includes several key institutions. The Supreme Court (''Mahkamah Agung'') is the highest judicial authority, handling final appeals and case reviews. The Constitutional Court (''Mahkamah Konstitusi'') addresses constitutional and political matters, while the country's Religious Court (''Pengadilan Agama'') oversees Islamic personal law cases. Additionally, the Judicial Commission (''Komisi Yudisial'') monitors judicial performance.

Parties and elections

Since 1999, Indonesia has operated under a multi-party system, wherein no single political party has secured an outright majority of seats in the legislative elections. Political parties are generally classified into two categories: secular and nationalist parties, which include the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P), the Party of the Functional Groups (''Golkar''), and the Great Indonesia Movement Party (''Gerindra'' Party); and Islamic parties, such as the centrist National Awakening Party (PKB) and the Islamist Prosperous Justice Party (PKS). Indonesia's political spectrum is characterised by a preference for pragmatism over ideological orthodoxy to fit the prevailing political climate, and by what are called cartel parties, with extensive power-sharing among parties and limited accountability to voters. Unlike many other democracies, pre-election party alliances are the norm in Indonesia.

In 1955, the first general election was held to elect members of the DPR and the Constitutional Assembly (''Konstituante''). The most recent elections in 2024 brought eight political parties to the DPR, with a parliamentary threshold of 4% of the national vote. At the national level, Indonesians did not elect a President until 2004. Since then, the President has been elected for a five-year term, as are the party-aligned members of the DPR and the non-partisan DPD. Beginning with the 2015 local elections, elections for governors and mayors have occurred on the same date. In 2013, the Constitutional Court ruled that legislative and presidential elections would be held simultaneously, starting in 2019.

Administrative divisions

Indonesia is divided into several administrative levels. At the first level are the provinces, each with a legislature (''Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah'', DPRD) and an elected governor. The number of provinces has grown from 8 in 1945 to 38 today, with the most recent one, Southwest Papua, established in 2022. The second level includes regencies (''kabupaten'') and cities (''kota''), led by regents (''bupati'') and mayors (''walikota''), respectively, both supported by legislatures (''DPRD Kabupaten/Kota''). Below this are districts (''kecamatan'', called ''distrik'' in Papua), and the fourth level comprises Villages of Indonesia, villages, known by various names like ''desa'', ''kelurahan'', ''kampung'', ''nagari'' (in West Sumatra), or ''gampong'' (in Aceh). Villages are subdivided into community groups (''rukun warga'', RW) and neighbourhood groups (''rukun tetangga'', RT), with further subdivisions like hamlets (''dusun'' or ''dukuh'') in Java.

The village level is the lowest administrative unit but significantly influences daily life. Village governments are led by elected heads (''lurah'' or ''kepala desa'') and handle local matters. Since the implementation of regional autonomy in 2001, regencies and cities have become key administrative units responsible for most government services. Nine provinces (Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, and the six provinces in Western New Guinea#Current government, Papua) are granted a special autonomous status (''otonomi khusus'') from the central government. A conservative Islamism, Islamic territory, Aceh has the right to apply aspects of sharia law. Yogyakarta uniquely retains its List of Indonesian monarchies, pre-colonial monarchy, with its Yogyakarta Sultanate, Sultan and Pakualaman, Duke serving as governor and vice governor, while the provinces in Papua are granted special autonomy to address separatist tensions, accelerate development, and provide Papuans with greater self-governance, aiming to integrate the region more equally with the rest of Indonesia.

Foreign relations

Indonesia follows an "independent and active" (''bebas aktif'') foreign policy, a term coined in 1948 by the country's first vice-president, Mohammad Hatta. This policy aims to navigate great power politics, maintain autonomy, and avoid alignment with major powers. The President holds the ultimate authority in determining foreign policy directions, while the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Indonesia), Foreign Affairs Ministry is responsible for formulating and implementing foreign policy. Meanwhile, the Parliament (DPR) provides oversight and ratifies international treaties. Indonesia is considered to be a middle power in global politics.

As the largest country in Southeast Asia and a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Indonesia considers ASEAN the cornerstone of its foreign policy. Indonesia has Indonesia–Palestine relations, actively supported Palestine while refraining from formal Indonesia–Israel relations, diplomatic relations with Israel. However, the two countries maintain discreet ties. Since the start of the 21st century, Indonesia has built deep China–Indonesia relations, relations with China, primarily relating to investments in infrastructure and trade, while at the same time maintaining a strategic Indonesia–United States relations, partnership with the United States, focusing on economic cooperation, security, and counterterrorism efforts.

Indonesia has been Indonesia and the United Nations, a member of the United Nations since 1950 and is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and the East Asia Summit. Indonesia is also a signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the Cairns Group, and the World Trade Organization (WTO). Indonesia has been a humanitarian and development aid recipient since the late 1960s, but it recently established its own foreign aid agency in 2019. The country also plays a role in maintaining international peace and security, deploying thousands of military and police personnel to multiple United Nations peacekeeping missions since 1957, including in United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon, Lebanon, the MONUSCO, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali, Mali.

Military

The Indonesian National Armed Forces (TNI) consists of the Indonesian Army, Army (TNI-AD), Indonesian Navy, Navy (TNI-AL) (including the Indonesian Marine Corps, Marine Corps), and Indonesian Air Force, Air Force (TNI-AU), with active personnel numbering approximately 300,400 in the Army, 65,000 in the Navy, and 30,100 in the Air Force. Established during the Indonesian National Revolution, the TNI initially engaged in guerrilla warfare alongside informal militias. Its territorial structure focuses on maintaining domestic stability and deterring foreign threats. Though political reforms in 1998 removed TNI's formal legislative role, it continues to wield political influence, albeit reduced from Dwifungsi, its peak during the New Order. Defence spending in 2023 was 0.7% of GDP, with controversies surrounding military-owned commercial ventures.

Since independence, Indonesia has struggled to maintain unity against separatist movements and insurgencies, notably in Insurgency in Aceh, Aceh and Papuan conflict, Papua. While the former ended peacefully in 2005, the latter has continued amid the implementation of regional autonomy and well-documented human rights abuses by the TNI, including extrajudicial killings, forced disappearances and restrictions on freedom of expression, as reported by Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and the UNHRC. Indonesia's historical military engagements include West New Guinea dispute, conflicts with the Netherlands over Dutch New Guinea, opposition to the British-backed creation of Malaysia (''Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, Konfrontasi''), the anti-communist mass killings, and the Indonesian invasion of East Timor, invasion of East Timor, which was Indonesia's largest military operation.

Law enforcement and human rights

Law enforcement in Indonesia is primarily handled by the Indonesian National Police (POLRI), supported by other agencies under the President, ministries, or state-owned companies. These agencies perform specific policing duties and are supervised and trained by the POLRI, which serves as the country's national civilian police force responsible for maintaining law and order.

Indonesia has a documented history of racial discrimination and conflicts, particularly Discrimination against Chinese Indonesians, against Chinese Indonesians and Papuans, which have at times escalated into violence, notably the May 1998 riots of Indonesia, anti-Chinese riots in 1998 and the ongoing Papua conflict since 1962. Other minorities, such as the LGBTQ, also face challenges, where a rapid surge of anti-LGBTQ rhetoric has been observed since the mid-2010s after relative obscurity on LGBTQ rights in Indonesia, the topic in the decades prior. Discrimination against religious minorities is also common.

Issues regarding free speech and the right to assembly are prevalent despite constitutional protections. Laws such as the Electronic Information and Transactions (''Informasi dan Transaksi Elektronik'', ITE) Law are often used to criminalise dissent, with critics and activists facing charges for expressing opinions online. Peaceful protests, particularly those addressing sensitive issues such as indigenous rights in Papua or environmental concerns, are frequently met with a heavy-handed response from law enforcement. The government occasionally imposes restrictions on assembly permits, particularly for those critical of authorities or advocating rights.

Economy

Indonesia operates a mixed economy where the private sector and the government play significant roles. As the only G20 member state in Southeast Asia, it has the region's largest economy and is classified as a newly industrialised country. In 2024, its nominal GDP was , List of countries by GDP (nominal), ranking 16th globally, while its GDP at purchasing power parity (PPP) was , List of countries by GDP (PPP), ranking 7th. Per capita GDP in PPP is , while nominal gross domestic product, per capita GDP is . In 2021, services dominate the economy in terms of employment (49.2%), followed by agriculture (28.9%) and industry (21.7%), while in terms of share of GDP in 2022, both services and industry dominate (roughly 41% each), followed by manufacturing (18.3%) and agriculture (12.4%).

The economic structure has Economic history of Indonesia, shifted significantly over time, transitioning from agriculture in the 1950s and 1960s to gradual industrialisation and urbanisation from the late 1960s to the 1980s. Falling oil prices in the 1980s prompted diversification into manufactured exports, resulting in substantial economic growth (the GDP rose at an average rate of 7.1%) and poverty reduction from 40% to 11%. However, the economy took a severe hit during the 1997 Asian financial crisis, Asian economic crisis in the late 1990s, when the GDP fell by 13%, inflation reached 78%, and GDP grew by only 0.8% in 1999. Recovery began in the early 2000s, with prudent banking regulations, better monetary and fiscal policies and flexible exchange rates, resulting in growth rates between 4% and 6% since 2004. These factors, coupled with strong domestic consumption, helped Indonesia weather the 2008 financial crisis. The COVID-19 pandemic in the early 2020s caused a recession, but the economy rebounded within just a year.

Indonesia's abundant natural resources, including nickel, coal, and petroleum, dominate its export portfolio. It imports refined and crude petroleum and vehicle parts, with major trade partners including China, the United States, Japan, Singapore, India, Malaysia, South Korea, and Thailand. Owing to plentiful rainfall, sunshine and fertile soil, Indonesia is a Agriculture in Indonesia, major agricultural country, ranking among the leading producers of palm oil, rubber, coffee, tea, cassava, rice, wheat, coconut oil, and tobacco. Despite these resources and decades of development, disparities in wealth, employment and economic opportunities persist between densely populated and economically advantaged regions in the western islands like Java and Sumatra and sparsely populated, underdeveloped areas in the east like Maluku and Papua.

Tourism

Tourism plays a significant role in Indonesia's economy, contributing to GDP and drawing 11.6 million international visitors in 2023. Australia, Singapore, Malaysia, China, and India are among the top five sources of visitors to Indonesia.

The tourism industry thrives on Indonesia's natural and cultural wealth. The country boasts a well-preserved natural ecosystem, with rainforests covering 57% of its land area (225 million acres). Popular natural destinations include the rainforests of Sumatra and Kalimantan, particularly the Orangutan wildlife reserves. Indonesia also has one of the world's longest coastlines, stretching . Cultural tourism features prominently, with attractions like the ancient Borobudur and Prambanan temples, the Toraja highlands, and the traditional festivities of Bali.

Indonesia is home to List of World Heritage Sites in Indonesia, ten UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including Komodo National Park and the Yogyakarta, Cosmological Axis of Yogyakarta. Additionally, 18 other sites are on the tentative list, such as Bunaken National Park and the Raja Ampat Islands. Historical tourism is also a major draw, with attractions like the colonial heritage of the Dutch East Indies in Kota Tua Jakarta, Jakarta and Dutch architecture in Semarang, Semarang, as well as the List of palaces in Indonesia, royal palaces of Pagaruyung Palace, Pagaruyung and Ubud Palace, Ubud.

Science and technology

Government spending on research and development is relatively low at 0.28% of GDP in 2020. Despite being ranked 54th among 133 countries on the 2024 Global Innovation Index, the country performs above expectations for its upper middle-income status. Historical innovations include ''Terrace (agriculture), terasering'', the terracing techniques for rice cultivation, and the ''pinisi'' boats of the Bugis and Makassar people. In the 1980s, Tjokorda Raka Sukawati developed the Sosrobahu road construction technique that is now used internationally. Indonesia also produces passenger trains and freight wagons through its state-owned Industri Kereta Api, Indonesian Railway Industry (''Industri Kereta Api'', INKA), which exports trains abroad.

Indonesia has a history of manufacturing military and commuter aircraft and is the only country in Southeast Asia to do so. Its state-owned aerospace company, Indonesian Aerospace (''PT. Dirgantara Indonesia'', PTDI), has supplied components to Boeing and Airbus and co-developed the CASA/IPTN CN-235, CN-235 with Spain's CASA (aircraft manufacturer), CASA. Former President B. J. Habibie, an aerospace engineer before getting into politics, played a key role in advancing the country's aerospace research. Recently, Indonesia has been collaborating with South Korea on the 4.5-generation fighter jet KAI KF-21 Boramae.

Indonesia's space program, managed by the National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (''Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional'', LAPAN), launched its first satellite (''Palapa'') in 1976 with assistance from the United States, making Indonesia the first developing country with a satellite system. As of 2024, Indonesia has launched 19 satellites for communication and other purposes. Recently, the government licensed Starlink to provide internet connectivity to rural and underserved regions.

Infrastructure

Transport

Indonesia's transport system reflects its archipelagic geography and population distribution, which is heavily concentrated on Java. As of 2022, the predominant road network spanned , including Transjakarta, which operates the world's longest bus rapid transit system. Common urban transport includes rickshaws like ''bajaj'' and ''becak'' and shared taxis such as ''angkot'' and minibuses.

Railways are primarily located in Java and parts of Sumatra and Sulawesi, serving freight and passenger transport, including commuter and inter-city rail services like those in KRL Commuterline, Greater Jakarta and KAI Commuter Yogyakarta Line, Yogyakarta. In the late 2010s, rapid transit systems were introduced in Jakarta and Palembang, with more planned for other cities. In collaboration with China, Indonesia inaugurated its first High-speed rail in Indonesia, high-speed rail (''Whoosh'') in 2023, connecting Jakarta and Bandung. It was the first such system in Southeast Asia and the Southern Hemisphere.

Air and sea transport also play significant roles. Soekarno–Hatta International Airport, Indonesia's largest, List of busiest airports by passenger traffic, served 54 million passengers in 2024, followed by Ngurah Rai International Airport, Ngurah Rai and Juanda International Airports. Garuda Indonesia, the national flag carrier since 1949, is one of the world's leading airlines and a member of the global airline alliance SkyTeam. The Port of Tanjung Priok, the country's busiest and most advanced, handles over 50% of Indonesia's trans-shipment cargo traffic.

Energy

Indonesia is a Energy in Indonesia, major energy producer and consumer, producing and consuming worth of energy in 2023. The country's total Electricity generation, installed power generation capacity in 2022 is approximately 83.8 gigawatts (GW), primarily from coal (61%). Other significant sources include natural gas, oil, and renewables such as geothermal, hydropower, and solar. The state-owned Perusahaan Listrik Negara, State Electricity Company (''Perusahaan Listrik Negara'', PLN) holds a monopoly on electric power distribution in the country.

Indonesia's energy mix is still dominated by non-renewable sources, with coal being the majority, followed by natural gas and oil. Renewables, including geothermal (5%), hydropower (7%), and solar (1%), make up a smaller but growing share. The potential for renewable energy is immense, particularly geothermal, where the country ranks as one of the world's largest producers. The country is one of the world's largest producers and exporters of coal and a significant exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG).

The government plans to transition towards greener energy sources and achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. In the latest energy plan in early 2025, the government aims for a 71-gigawatt expansion in power capacity by 2034, with a focus on renewables. However, the country has insufficient infrastructure for renewable energy, faces difficulties in providing electricity access to remote areas, and continues to rely heavily on coal.

Demographics

According to the 2020 Indonesian census, 2020 census, Demographics of Indonesia, Indonesia had a population of 270.2 million, making it the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fourth most populous country. The population grew at a rate of 1.25% between 2010 and 2020. Java, the world's most populated island, is home to 56% of Indonesia's population. The overall population density stands at , but Java's density is significantly higher, reaching . Indonesia's first post-colonial census in 1961 recorded a population of 97 million, and projections estimate it will grow to 321 million by 2050. The country maintains a relatively young demographic, with a median age of 31.5 years as of 2024.

Indonesia's population distribution is highly uneven, reflecting its diverse geography and List of Indonesian provinces by Human Development Index, varying levels of development. It ranges from the bustling megacity of Jakarta to remote and Uncontacted peoples, uncontacted tribes in Papua. As of 2023, approximately 59% of Indonesians live in urban areas, with Jakarta as the country's primate city and the List of largest cities, second-most populous urban area globally, housing over 34 million people. Additionally, about 8 million Overseas Indonesians, Indonesians reside overseas, with large communities in Malaysia, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia.

Ethnic groups and languages

Indonesia is home to around 600 distinct native ethnic groups, predominantly descended from Austronesian peoples speaking Proto-Austronesian languages, likely from modern-day Taiwan. The Melanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia, represent another significant ethnic grouping. The Javanese, making up 40% of the population, are the largest ethnic group and the politically dominant one, primarily residing in central and eastern Java, with sizeable numbers in other provinces. Other major groups include the Sundanese people, Sundanese, Malay Indonesians, Malay, Batak, Madurese people, Madurese, Betawi people, Betawi, Minangkabau people, Minangkabau, and Bugis people, Bugis. A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.

The official language, Indonesian language, Indonesian, is a variant of Malay language, Malay based on its Prestige (sociolinguistics), prestige dialect, which became the archipelago's ''lingua franca'' over the course of centuries. It was first Youth Pledge, promoted by nationalists in the 1920s and gained official status in 1945, following independence, under the name ''Bahasa Indonesia'', and has since been widely adopted due to its use in education, media, business, and governance. While nearly all Indonesians speak ''Bahasa'', most also speak one of over 700 local languages, often as their first language. These are predominantly from the Austronesian languages, Austronesian family, with over 270 Papuan languages in eastern Indonesia. Javanese language, Javanese is the most widely spoken local language and holds co-official status in Special Region of Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta.

The Dutch people, Dutch and other European-descended populations like the Indo people, Indos, though significant during colonial times, always represented a small fraction of the population, numbering only around 200,000 in 1930. The Dutch language never gained substantial traction due to the Dutch colonial focus on commerce rather than cultural integration. Dutch fluency exists today in small numbers among some older generations and legal professionals, as specific legal codes remain available only in that language.

Religion

Indonesia officially recognises Religion in Indonesia, six religions: Islam, Protestantism in Indonesia, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism in Indonesia, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism in Indonesia, Hinduism, Buddhism in Indonesia, Buddhism, and Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia, Confucianism, while acknowledging religious freedom in the constitution and indigenous religions for administrative purposes. As of 2023, 87.1% of the population (248 million Indonesians) are Muslims, making Indonesia the world's most populous Muslim-majority country, with Sunnis constituting 99% of the Muslim population. Christians, comprising 10% of the population, form majorities in several eastern provinces, while Hindus and Buddhists are primarily Balinese and Chinese Indonesians, respectively.

Before the arrival of major world religions, Indonesia's natives practised animism and Dynamism (metaphysics), dynamism, worshipping ancestral spirits and believing in the supernatural (''hyang'') inhabiting natural elements, such as large trees, mountains and forests. Such beliefs are common to the Austronesian peoples. These indigenous traditions, such as Sundanese Sunda Wiwitan, Javanese Kejawèn and Dayak's Kaharingan, have profoundly influenced modern religious practices, resulting in a less orthodox and syncretic form of faith like Javanese abangan, Balinese Hinduism and Dayak Christianity.

Hinduism reached the archipelago in the 1st century CE, followed by Buddhism in the 6th century. Both religions shaped Indonesia's religious history through influential empires like Majapahit, Srivijaya, and Sailendra, leaving a lasting cultural impact that remains today despite both no longer being the majority. Islam arrived as early as the 8th century through Sunni and Sufi traders from the Indian subcontinent and South Arabia, southern Arabian peninsula, mixing with local cultural and religious traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture (''Pesantren, santri''). By the 16th century, Islam had become the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra, resulting from the blend of trade, Islamic missionary activity, ''dawah'', such as by the Wali Sanga and Chinese explorer Zheng He, and military campaigns by several sultanates.

Catholicism and Protestantism were later introduced through missionary efforts during European colonisation, such as by Jesuit Francis Xavier, though the spread of the former faced challenges under the VOC and Dutch colonial era policies. The latter's primary branches include Calvinism and Lutheranism, though a multitude of other denominations exist in the country. A small Jewish presence has existed in the archipelago, primarily descendants of Dutch and Iraqi Jews, though their numbers have dwindled since independence in 1945. Only a few Jews remain today, mostly in major cities like Jakarta, Manado and Surabaya. One of the remaining synagogues, Sha'ar Hashamayim Synagogue (Tondano), Sha'ar Hashamayim, is located in Tondano, North Sulawesi, around 31 km from Manado.

Religion is central to the lives of the overwhelming majority of Indonesians, reflecting its integral role in the country's society, culture, and identity. Interfaith relations are significantly shaped by political leadership and civil society, guided by the first principle of Pancasila, which emphasises belief in a supreme deity and religious tolerance. While it promotes harmony, religious intolerance continues to be a recurring issue.

Education

Indonesia has Education in Indonesia, one of the largest education systems in the world, with over 50 million students, 4 million teachers, and more than 250,000 schools spanning the archipelago. Overseen by the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, and Technology (Indonesia), Ministry of Higher Education, Science, and Technology and the Ministry of Religious Affairs (Indonesia), Ministry of Religious Affairs for Islamic schools, the system follows a 6-3-3-4 structure: six years of elementary school, three years each of junior and senior secondary school, and four years of tertiary education. While the literacy rate is high (96%), it is lower in rural and remote areas. Enrolment rates vary across educational levels, with near-universal enrolment in primary education (97.9%), but drop to 81.7% and 64.2% in lower and upper secondary education and around 42.6% for tertiary education.

Government spending on education accounted for approximately 1.3% of GDP in 2023. In the same year, there were 4,481 higher education institutions in the country, including universities, Islamic institutions, and open universities. The University of Indonesia, Gadjah Mada University, and the Bandung Institute of Technology are the top three universities in the country, all of which rank within the world's top 300 universities.

Issues regarding quality and equity are persistent, particularly urban-rural disparities, inadequate school infrastructure, and a lack of qualified teachers. The system also lags behind international benchmarks, such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), where Indonesian students consistently rank near the bottom in reading, mathematics, and science. The higher education sector has been struggling with underfunding, low quality, limited research output and a mismatch between graduates' skills and labour market needs.

Healthcare

Indonesia has made significant progress in developing its Healthcare in Indonesia, healthcare system since 1945. Initially, healthcare services were limited, with a shortage of doctors, hospitals, and infrastructure. In the late 1960s, the government began establishing Puskesmas, community health centres (''puskesmas'') to provide basic services in rural areas. With the help of the World Health Organization in the 1970s and 1980s, Indonesia implemented an immunisation program to combat diseases like polio and measles. The system experienced a major transformation in 2014 with the launch of ''Healthcare in Indonesia#Universal health coverage, Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional'' (JKN), a universal health care managed by the BPJS Kesehatan, Social Security Agency on Health (''BPJS Kesehatan''). It is one of the world's largest Single-payer healthcare, single-payer systems, covering over 83% of the population (225.9 million) in 2021.

Government spending on healthcare accounted for 2.69% of GDP in 2022. Primary healthcare is delivered through ''puskesmas'', hospitals, and private clinics. While the healthcare system lags behind those in ASEAN neighbours like Malaysia and Singapore, significant public health outcomes have been achieved, such as an increase in life expectancy (from 54.9 years in 1973 to 71.1 years in 2023), a decline in child mortality (from 15.5 deaths per 100 live births in 1972 to 2.1 deaths in 2022), polio eradication in 2014, and decreasing cases of malaria.

Some chronic health issues persist, including Stunted growth, child stunting that affects 21.6% of children under five according to a 2022 data. Low air quality, particularly in major cities, contributes to respiratory illnesses, while maternal and child health indicators remain areas of concern, with a Maternal death, maternal mortality rate the third highest in the region. Additionally, Indonesia has one of the Smoking in Indonesia, highest smoking rates globally (34.8% of adults), contributing to a high prevalence of non-communicable diseases like cardiovascular issues and lung cancer.

Culture

The cultural history of Indonesia spans over two thousand years and has been influenced by the Indian subcontinent, China, the Middle East, Europe, Melanesian, and Austronesian peoples. These influences have shaped the country's multicultural, multilingual, and multi-ethnic identity, distinct from its indigenous roots. Indonesia holds UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists, 16 items recognised by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage, including wayang puppet theatre, batik, angklung, the saman dance, and pencak silat. Recent joint nominations added pantun, kebaya, and kolintang to the list.

Art and architecture

Indonesian arts encompass traditional and contemporary forms shaped by influences from India, the Arab world, China, and Europe, driven by cultural exchange and trade. Bali's Balinese art, artistic traditions, such as classical Kamasan and Wayang-style painting, are renowned, originating from visual narratives depicted on Candi of Indonesia, candi bas-reliefs from eastern Java. Traditional architecture reflects ethnic diversity, with iconic and traditional houses (''rumah adat'') like Toraja's ''Tongkonan'', Minangkabau's ''Rumah Gadang'', Java's ''Pendopo'', and Dayak people, Dayak longhouses each showcasing unique customs and histories. Other traditional crafts, including carpentry and masonry, showcase intricate decorations and techniques passed down through generations.

Discoveries of Megalithic art, megalithic sculptures led to the flourishing of tribal art among the Nias, Batak, Asmat, Dayak, and Toraja communities, who utilised wood and stone as primary sculpting materials. From the 8th to the 15th centuries, the Javanese civilisation excelled in sophisticated stone sculpting and architecture, heavily influenced by the Hindu-Buddhist Dharmic culture. This period produced monumental works like the Borobudur and Prambanan temples, which today remain celebrated as masterpieces of Indonesia's sophisticated artistic and architectural heritage.

Music, dance and clothing

Indonesia's musical heritage predates historical records, with indigenous tribes using chants and traditional instruments like the angklung, gamelan, and sasando in rituals. Influences from other cultures have enriched Indonesian music, such as the Qanbūs, gambus and qasida from the Middle East, keroncong from Portugal, and dangdut (one of the country's most popular music genres), which incorporates Hindi, Malay, and Middle Eastern elements. Today, Indonesian music enjoys regional popularity in Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei due to cultural similarities and Comparison of Indonesian and Standard Malay, language intelligibility.

With over 3,000 traditional dances, Indonesian dance forms have their origins in rituals and religious worship, such as the dance of witch doctors and Hudoq, as well as periods of Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic influence. While modern and urban dances shaped by Western, Japanese, and South Korean cultures are gaining popularity, traditional dances like those of Java, Bali, and Dayak remain a living tradition.

Indonesia's rich cultural history is also reflected in its diverse clothing styles. National costumes like batik and kebaya are widely recognised, with roots in Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese cultures.Jill Forshee, ''Culture and customs of Indonesia'', Greenwood Publishing Group: 2006: . 237 pp. Traditional attire varies by region and province, such as the Batak ulos, Malay and Minangkabau songket, and Sasak ikat, and is commonly worn for ceremonies, weddings, and formal events.

Theatre and cinema

Traditional Indonesian theatre, such as wayang shadow puppetry, often depicts Hindu epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Other forms of drama, such as ''Ludruk'', ''Ketoprak'', ''Sandiwara'', ''Lenong'', and Balinese dance dramas, often incorporate humour, music, and audience interaction. Unique traditions like the Minangkabau ''Randai'' combine music, dance, and martial arts (''silat''), telling semi-historical legends during traditional ceremonies and festivals. Modern theatre, exemplified by ''Teater Koma'', addresses social and political themes through satire.

The first film produced in the archipelago was ''Loetoeng Kasaroeng'' (1926), a silent film by Dutch director L. Heuveldorp, and the film industry expanded post-independence with Usmar Ismail's pioneering work in the 1950s. During the latter part of the Sukarno era in the 1960s, films were used to promote nationalism and anti-Western sentiment, while Suharto's New Order imposed censorship to maintain social order. Film productions peaked in the 1980s with notable titles such as ''Satan's Slave (1980 film), Pengabdi Setan'' (1980), ''Tjoet Nja' Dhien'' (1988) and ''Warkop'' comedy films, but the industry declined in the next decade.

In the post-Suharto era, the industry saw a resurgence. Independent filmmakers tackled previously censored themes like race, religion, and love, producing notable films such as ''Kuldesak'' (1999) and ''Ada Apa dengan Cinta?'' (2002). The 2022 film ''KKN di Desa Penari'' set box office records, becoming the most-watched Indonesian film with 9.2 million tickets sold. The Indonesian Film Festival (''Festival Film Indonesia''), which gives out the Citra Award, has celebrated cinematic achievements since 1955.

File:Wayang Wong Bharata Pandawa.jpg, The Pandavas and Krishna in an act of the ''Wayang Wong'' performance, alt=
File:Loetoeng Kasaroeng p67.jpg, Advertisement for ''Loetoeng Kasaroeng'' (1926), the first fiction film produced in the Dutch East Indies

Mass media and literature

Media of Indonesia, Media freedom in Indonesia significantly improved after the fall of Suharto's rule, during which the Ministry of Information tightly controlled the media. The television landscape shifted from a monopoly by the public broadcaster TVRI (1962–1989) to a competitive market with national and provincial networks. By the 21st century, television signals have reached every village, offering up to 11 channels. Private radio stations provide news, while foreign broadcasters offer diverse programming. Print publications also expanded significantly after 1998. Indonesia's internet development began in the early 1990s, with the first commercial Internet service provider, PT. Indo Internet, starting operations in 1994. By 2023, the country had 210 million internet users, with mobile phones as the primary point of access. Internet penetration continues to grow annually.

Indonesian literature has roots in Sanskrit inscriptions from the 5th century and a strong oral tradition, while early modern literature originates in the Sumatran tradition. Traditional forms such as ''syair'', ''pantun'', ''hikayat'', and ''babad'' dominate early prose and poetry, with notable works such as ''Syair Abdul Muluk'', ''Hikayat Hang Tuah'', ''Sulalatus Salatin'', and ''Babad Tanah Jawi''. The establishment of ''Balai Pustaka'' in 1917 marked a push to develop indigenous literature, leading to a literary Golden Age in the 1950s and 1960s. Influenced by the country's political and social landscape dynamics, modern literature includes works from notable figures like Chairil Anwar, Pramoedya Ananta Toer, and Ayu Utami.

Cuisine

Indonesian cuisine has many regional cuisines, often based upon indigenous culture and foreign influences such as Chinese, African, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents. Rice is the leading staple food and is served with side dishes of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chilli), coconut milk, fish, and chicken are fundamental ingredients.

Some popular dishes, such as ''nasi goreng'', ''gado-gado'', ''mie ayam'', ''bakso'', ''Satay, sate'', and ''Soto (food), soto'', are ubiquitous and considered national dishes. The Ministry of Tourism, however, chose ''tumpeng'' as the official national dish in 2014, describing it as binding the diversity of various culinary traditions. Other popular dishes include ''rendang'', one of the many Padang cuisine, Minangkabau cuisines, along with ''dendeng'' and ''gulai''. Another fermented food is ''oncom'', which is similar in some ways to ''tempeh'' but uses a variety of bases (not only soy), created by different fungi, and is prevalent in West Java.

Sports

Badminton and association football, football are the most popular sports in Indonesia. Indonesia is among the few countries that have won the Thomas Cup, Thomas and Uber Cup, the world team championship of men's and women's badminton. Along with Olympic weightlifting, weightlifting, badminton is the sport that contributes the most to Indonesia at the Olympics, Indonesia's Olympic medal tally. Liga 1 (Indonesia), Liga 1 is the country's premier football league. On the international stage, Indonesia national football team, Indonesia was the first Asian team to participate in the FIFA World Cup in 1938 FIFA World Cup, 1938 as the Dutch East Indies. On a regional level, Indonesia won a bronze medal at the 1958 Asian Games as well as three gold medals at the 1987 Southeast Asian Games, 1987, 1991 Southeast Asian Games, 1991, and 2023 Southeast Asian Games (SEA Games). Indonesia's first appearance at the AFC Asian Cup was in 1996 AFC Asian Cup, 1996.

Other popular sports include boxing and basketball, which were part of the first National Sports Week (Indonesia), National Games (''Pekan Olahraga Nasional'', PON) in 1948. ''Sepak takraw'' and ''karapan sapi'' (bull racing) in Madura Island, Madura are some examples of Indonesia's traditional sports. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as ''caci'' in Flores and ''pasola'' in Sumba. ''Pencak silat'' is an Indonesian martial art that, in 2018, became one of the sporting events in the Asian Games, with Indonesia appearing as one of the leading competitors. In Southeast Asia, Indonesia topped the SEA Games medal table ten times since 1977, most recently in 2011 Southeast Asian Games, 2011.

See also

* List of Indonesia-related topics
* Index of Indonesia-related articles
* Outline of Indonesia

Notes

References

Citations

Bibliography

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* Winters, Jeffrey A. "Oligarchy and democracy in Indonesia." in ''Beyond Oligarchy'' (Cornell UP, 2014) pp. 11–34
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External links

Key Development Forecasts for Indonesia
from International Futures

Government

Government
– Official website of the Government of Indonesia

Presidency
– official website of the president of Indonesia

Vice President
– official website of the vice president of Indonesia

People's Consultative Assembly
�– official website of People's Consultative Assembly of the Republic of Indobesia

Regional Representative Council
– official website of Indonesia Regional Representative Council

House of Representatives
– official website of Indonesia House of Representatives

Supreme Court
– official website of the Supreme Court of Indonesia

Constitutional Court
– official website of the Constitutional Court of Indonesia

Statistics
– official website of Central Agency of Statistics

History

"History"
– Indonesian history at Repositori Institusi

Tourism

Wonderful Indonesia
– Indonesia's official tourism portal

Maps

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Indonesia, Indonesia
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