Republic Of Indonesia (1949–50)
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in
Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, southeastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent, and northwest of the Mainland Au ...
and
Oceania Oceania ( , ) is a region, geographical region including Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Outside of the English-speaking world, Oceania is generally considered a continent, while Mainland Australia is regarded as its co ...
, between the
Indian Indian or Indians may refer to: Associated with India * of or related to India ** Indian people ** Indian diaspora ** Languages of India ** Indian English, a dialect of the English language ** Indian cuisine Associated with indigenous peoples o ...
and
Pacific The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earth's five oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean, or, depending on the definition, to Antarctica in the south, and is bounded by the cont ...
oceans. Comprising over 17,000 islands, including
Sumatra Sumatra () is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the list of islands by area, sixth-largest island in the world at 482,286.55 km2 (182,812 mi. ...
,
Java Java is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea (a part of Pacific Ocean) to the north. With a population of 156.9 million people (including Madura) in mid 2024, proje ...
,
Sulawesi Sulawesi ( ), also known as Celebes ( ), is an island in Indonesia. One of the four Greater Sunda Islands, and the List of islands by area, world's 11th-largest island, it is situated east of Borneo, west of the Maluku Islands, and south of Min ...
, and parts of
Borneo Borneo () is the List of islands by area, third-largest island in the world, with an area of , and population of 23,053,723 (2020 national censuses). Situated at the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia, it is one of the Greater Sunda ...
and
New Guinea New Guinea (; Hiri Motu: ''Niu Gini''; , fossilized , also known as Papua or historically ) is the List of islands by area, world's second-largest island, with an area of . Located in Melanesia in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, the island is ...
, Indonesia is the world's largest
archipelagic state An archipelagic state is an island country that consists of one or more archipelagos. The designation is legally defined by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 1982 ( UNCLOS III). The Bahamas, Fiji, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea ...
and the 14th-largest country by area, at . With over 280 million people, Indonesia is the world's fourth-most-populous country and the most populous Muslim-majority country. Java, the world's most populous island, is home to more than half of the country's population. Indonesia operates as a
presidential republic A presidential, strong-president, or single-executive system (sometimes also congressional system) is a form of government in which a head of government (usually titled " president") heads an executive branch that derives its authority and l ...
with an elected
legislature A legislature (, ) is a deliberative assembly with the legal authority to make laws for a political entity such as a country, nation or city on behalf of the people therein. They are often contrasted with the executive and judicial power ...
and consists of 38 provinces, nine of which have special autonomous status.
Jakarta Jakarta (; , Betawi language, Betawi: ''Jakartè''), officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta (; ''DKI Jakarta'') and formerly known as Batavia, Dutch East Indies, Batavia until 1949, is the capital and largest city of Indonesia and ...
, the largest city, is the world's second-most-populous urban area. Indonesia shares
land borders Borders are generally defined as geography, geographical boundaries, imposed either by features such as oceans and terrain, or by polity, political entities such as governments, sovereign states, federated states, and other administrative divisio ...
with
Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea, officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, is an island country in Oceania that comprises the eastern half of the island of New Guinea and offshore islands in Melanesia, a region of the southwestern Pacific Ocean n ...
,
Timor-Leste Timor-Leste, also known as East Timor, officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, is a country in Southeast Asia. It comprises the eastern half of the island of Timor, the coastal exclave of Oecusse in the island's northwest, and ...
, and the eastern part of Malaysia, as well as
maritime border A maritime boundary is a conceptual division of Earth's water surface areas using physiographical or geopolitical criteria. As such, it usually bounds areas of exclusive national rights over mineral and biological resources,VLIZ Maritime Boun ...
s with
Singapore Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, is an island country and city-state in Southeast Asia. The country's territory comprises one main island, 63 satellite islands and islets, and one outlying islet. It is about one degree ...
,
Peninsular Malaysia Peninsular Malaysia, historically known as Malaya and also known as West Malaysia or the Malaysian Peninsula, is the western part of Malaysia that comprises the southern part of the Malay Peninsula on Mainland Southeast Asia and the list of isla ...
,
Vietnam Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about and a population of over 100 million, making it the world's List of countries and depende ...
,
Thailand Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand and historically known as Siam (the official name until 1939), is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. With a population of almost 66 million, it spa ...
, the
Philippines The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is an Archipelagic state, archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. Located in the western Pacific Ocean, it consists of List of islands of the Philippines, 7,641 islands, with a tot ...
,
Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising mainland Australia, the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and list of islands of Australia, numerous smaller isl ...
,
Palau Palau, officially the Republic of Palau, is an island country in the Micronesia subregion of Oceania in the western Pacific Ocean. The Republic of Palau consists of approximately 340 islands and is the western part of the Caroline Islands ...
, and
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity. The Indonesian archipelago has been a valuable region for
trade Trade involves the transfer of goods and services from one person or entity to another, often in exchange for money. Economists refer to a system or network that allows trade as a market. Traders generally negotiate through a medium of cr ...
since at least the seventh century, when Sumatra's
Srivijaya Srivijaya (), also spelled Sri Vijaya, was a Hinduism, Hindu-Buddhism, Buddhist thalassocracy, thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia) that influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important ...
and later Java's
Majapahit Majapahit (; (eastern and central dialect) or (western dialect)), also known as Wilwatikta (; ), was a Javanese people, Javanese Hinduism, Hindu-Buddhism, Buddhist thalassocracy, thalassocratic empire in Southeast Asia based on the island o ...
kingdoms engaged in
commerce Commerce is the organized Complex system, system of activities, functions, procedures and institutions that directly or indirectly contribute to the smooth, unhindered large-scale exchange (distribution through Financial transaction, transactiona ...
with entities from
mainland China "Mainland China", also referred to as "the Chinese mainland", is a Geopolitics, geopolitical term defined as the territory under direct administration of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in the aftermath of the Chinese Civil War. In addit ...
and the
Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a physiographic region of Asia below the Himalayas which projects into the Indian Ocean between the Bay of Bengal to the east and the Arabian Sea to the west. It is now divided between Bangladesh, India, and Pakista ...
. Over the centuries, local rulers assimilated foreign influences, leading to the flourishing of
Hindu Hindus (; ; also known as Sanātanīs) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism, also known by its endonym Sanātana Dharma. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pp. 35–37 Historically, the term has also be ...
and
Buddhist Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
kingdoms.
Sunni Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any successor and that his closest companion Abu Bakr () rightfully succeeded him as the caliph of the Mu ...
traders and
Sufi Sufism ( or ) is a mysticism, mystic body of religious practice found within Islam which is characterized by a focus on Islamic Tazkiyah, purification, spirituality, ritualism, and Asceticism#Islam, asceticism. Practitioners of Sufism are r ...
scholars later brought
Islam Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...
, and European powers fought one another to monopolise trade in the Spice Islands of
Maluku Maluku may refer to: Places * Maluku Islands, an archipelago that is part of Indonesia ** List of the Maluku Islands * Maluku (province), a province of Indonesia comprising the central and southern parts of the archipelago * North Maluku, a provin ...
during the
Age of Discovery The Age of Discovery (), also known as the Age of Exploration, was part of the early modern period and overlapped with the Age of Sail. It was a period from approximately the 15th to the 17th century, during which Seamanship, seafarers fro ...
. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
and has since faced challenges such as separatism, corruption, and natural disasters, alongside
democratisation Democratization, or democratisation, is the structural government transition from an authoritarian government to a more democratic political regime, including substantive political changes moving in a democratic direction. Whether and to what ...
and rapid economic growth. Indonesian society comprises hundreds of
ethnic An ethnicity or ethnic group is a group of people with shared attributes, which they collectively believe to have, and long-term endogamy. Ethnicities share attributes like language, culture, common sets of ancestry, traditions, society, re ...
and
linguistic Linguistics is the scientific study of language. The areas of linguistic analysis are syntax (rules governing the structure of sentences), semantics (meaning), Morphology (linguistics), morphology (structure of words), phonetics (speech sounds ...
groups, with Javanese being the largest. The nation's identity is unified under the motto ''
Bhinneka Tunggal Ika ''Bhinneka Tunggal Ika'' is the official national motto of Indonesia. It is inscribed in the national emblem of Indonesia, the Garuda Pancasila, written on the scroll gripped by the Garuda's claws. The phrase comes from Old Javanese, meanin ...
'', defined by a
national language '' '' A national language is a language (or language variant, e.g. dialect) that has some connection— de facto or de jure—with a nation. The term is applied quite differently in various contexts. One or more languages spoken as first languag ...
, cultural and religious pluralism, a history of
colonialism Colonialism is the control of another territory, natural resources and people by a foreign group. Colonizers control the political and tribal power of the colonised territory. While frequently an Imperialism, imperialist project, colonialism c ...
, and rebellion against it. A
newly industrialised country The category of newly industrialized country (NIC), newly industrialized economy (NIE) or middle-income country is a socioeconomic classification applied to several countries around the world by political scientists and economists. They represen ...
, Indonesia's
economy An economy is an area of the Production (economics), production, Distribution (economics), distribution and trade, as well as Consumption (economics), consumption of Goods (economics), goods and Service (economics), services. In general, it is ...
ranks as the world's 16th-largest by nominal GDP and the 7th-largest by PPP. As the world's third-largest democracy and a
middle power A middle power is a state that is not a superpower or a great power, but still exerts influence and plays a significant role in international relations. These countries often possess certain capabilities, such as strong economies, advanced tech ...
in global affairs, the country is a member of several multilateral organisations, including the
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is the Earth, global intergovernmental organization established by the signing of the Charter of the United Nations, UN Charter on 26 June 1945 with the stated purpose of maintaining international peace and internationa ...
,
World Trade Organization The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland that regulates and facilitates international trade. Governments use the organization to establish, revise, and enforce the rules that g ...
,
G20 The G20 or Group of 20 is an intergovernmental forum comprising 19 sovereign countries, the European Union (EU), and the African Union (AU). It works to address major issues related to the global economy, such as international financial stabil ...
,
MIKTA MIKTA is an informal middle power partnership between Mexico, Indonesia, South Korea, Turkey, and Australia. It is led by the Foreign Ministers. It was created in 2013 on the sidelines of the United Nations General Assembly in New York City and ...
,
BRICS BRICS is an intergovernmental organization comprising ten countriesBrazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa, Egypt, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Iran and the United Arab Emirates. The idea of a BRICS-like group can be traced back to Russian foreign ...
and a founding member of the
Non-Aligned Movement The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a forum of 121 countries that Non-belligerent, are not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc. It was founded with the view to advancing interests of developing countries in the context of Cold W ...
,
Association of Southeast Asian Nations The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, commonly abbreviated as ASEAN, is a regional grouping of 10 Sovereign state, states in Southeast Asia "that aims to promote economic and security cooperation among its ten members." Together, its ...
,
East Asia Summit The East Asia Summit (EAS) is a regional forum held annually by leaders of, initially, 16 countries in the East Asian, Southeast Asian, South Asian and Oceanian regions, based on the Association of Southeast Asian Nations#ASEAN Plus Three and A ...
,
APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC ) is an inter-governmental forum for 21 member economy , economies in the Pacific Rim that promotes free trade throughout the Asia-Pacific region. Following the success of Association of Southeast Asia ...
and the
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC; ; ), formerly the Organisation of the Islamic Conference, is an intergovernmental organisation founded in 1969. It consists of Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, 57 member s ...
.


Etymology

The name ''Indonesia'' derives from the
Greek Greek may refer to: Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...
words () and (), meaning "Indian islands". The name dates back to the 19th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850,
George Windsor Earl George Windsor Earl (10 February 1813 – 9 August 1865) was an English navigator, colonial administrator, and author of works on the Indian Archipelago. He coined the term 'Indu-nesian', later adopted as the name for Indonesia. The word's e ...
, an English
ethnologist Ethnology (from the , meaning 'nation') is an academic field and discipline that compares and analyzes the characteristics of different peoples and the relationships between them (compare cultural, social, or sociocultural anthropology). Scien ...
, proposed the terms ''Indunesians''—and, his preference, ''Malayunesians''—for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or
Malay Archipelago The Malay Archipelago is the archipelago between Mainland Southeast Asia and Australia, and is also called Insulindia or the Indo-Australian Archipelago. The name was taken from the 19th-century European concept of a Malay race, later based ...
". In the same publication, one of his students,
James Richardson Logan James Richardson Logan (born 10 April 1819 in Berwickshire, Scotland, died 20 October 1869 in Penang, Straits Settlements) was a lawyer who popularised the name Indonesia after it was coined by the English ethnologist George Windsor Earl. He wa ...
, used ''Indonesia'' as a synonym for ''Indian Archipelago''. Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use ''Indonesia''. They preferred ''Malay Archipelago'' (); the ''
Netherlands East Indies The Dutch East Indies, also known as the Netherlands East Indies (; ), was a Dutch Empire, Dutch colony with territory mostly comprising the modern state of Indonesia, which Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, declared independence on 17 Au ...
'' (), popularly ; ''the East'' (); and . After 1900, ''Indonesia'' became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.
Adolf Bastian Adolf Philipp Wilhelm Bastian (26 June 18262 February 1905) was a 19th-century polymath remembered best for his contributions to the development of ethnography and the development of anthropology as a discipline. His theory of the ''Elementargedan ...
of the University of Berlin popularised the name through his book . The first native scholar to use the name was
Ki Hajar Dewantara Raden Mas Soewardi Soerjaningrat ( EYD: Suwardi Suryaningrat); from 1922 also known as Ki Hadjar Dewantara (EYD: Ki Hajar Dewantara), which is also written as Ki Hajar Dewantoro to reflect its Javanese pronunciation (2 May 1889 in Pakualaman ...
, who established a press bureau in the Netherlands, , in 1913.


History


Early history

The Indonesian archipelago has been inhabited since the time of ''
homo erectus ''Homo erectus'' ( ) is an extinction, extinct species of Homo, archaic human from the Pleistocene, spanning nearly 2 million years. It is the first human species to evolve a humanlike body plan and human gait, gait, to early expansions of h ...
'' or "Java Man," with fossils dating back 2 million to 500,000 BCE. Fossils of ''
homo floresiensis ''Homo floresiensis'' , also known as "Flores Man" or "Hobbit" (after Hobbit, the fictional species), is an Extinction, extinct species of small archaic humans that inhabited the island of Flores, Indonesia, until the arrival of Homo sapiens, ...
'', found on Flores, date around 700,000 to 60,000 BCE, while ''
homo sapiens Humans (''Homo sapiens'') or modern humans are the most common and widespread species of primate, and the last surviving species of the genus ''Homo''. They are Hominidae, great apes characterized by their Prehistory of nakedness and clothing ...
'' arrived around 43,000 BCE. Sulawesi and Borneo are home to the world's oldest known
cave painting In archaeology, cave paintings are a type of parietal art (which category also includes petroglyphs, or engravings), found on the wall or ceilings of caves. The term usually implies prehistoric art, prehistoric origin. These paintings were often c ...
s, dating back 40,000 to 60,000 years, and megalithic sites such as western Java's '' Gunung Padang'', Sulawesi's '' Lore Lindu'', as well as Sumatra's Nias and Sumba reflect early human settlements and ceremonial practices. Around 2,000 BCE,
Austronesian peoples The Austronesian people, sometimes referred to as Austronesian-speaking peoples, are a large group of peoples who have settled in Taiwan, maritime Southeast Asia, parts of mainland Southeast Asia, Micronesia, coastal New Guinea, Island Melan ...
began arriving in Southeast Asia from the island now known as
Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia. The main geography of Taiwan, island of Taiwan, also known as ''Formosa'', lies between the East China Sea, East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocea ...
, gradually displacing native
Melanesians Melanesians are the predominant and Indigenous peoples of Oceania, indigenous inhabitants of Melanesia, in an area stretching from New Guinea to the Fiji Islands. Most speak one of the many languages of the Austronesian languages, Austronesian l ...
to the far eastern part of the archipelago as they spread east, and would eventually form the majority of Indonesia's modern population. Favourable agricultural conditions and advancements like wet-field rice cultivation by the 8th century BCE enabled the growth of villages and kingdoms by the first century CE. The archipelago's strategic location fostered inter-island and international exchange with civilisations from the Indian subcontinent and mainland China, profoundly influencing Indonesian history and culture through trade. By the 7th century CE, the
Srivijaya Srivijaya (), also spelled Sri Vijaya, was a Hinduism, Hindu-Buddhism, Buddhist thalassocracy, thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia) that influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important ...
naval kingdom thrived on trade, adopting Hindu and Buddhist influences. The 8th to 10th centuries saw the rise and decline of the Buddhist
Sailendra The Shailendra dynasty (, derived from Sanskrit combined words ''Śaila'' and ''Indra'', meaning "King of the Mountain", also spelled Sailendra, Syailendra or Selendra) was the name of a notable Indianised dynasty that emerged in 8th-century ...
and Hindu Mataram dynasties, leaving monumental legacies like the
Borobudur Borobudur, also transcribed Barabudur (, ), is a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple in Magelang Regency, near the city of Magelang and the town of Muntilan, in Central Java, Indonesia. Constructed of gray andesite-like stone, the temple consi ...
and
Prambanan Prambanan (, , Javanese script, Hanacaraka: ꦫꦫꦗꦺꦴꦁꦒꦿꦁ) is a 9th-century Hindu temple, Hindu Candi of Indonesia, temple compound in the Special Region of Yogyakarta, in southern Java, Indonesia, dedicated to the Trimurti, Trimūr ...
temples. After the failed
Mongol invasion of Java The Yuan dynasty under Kublai Khan attempted in 1293 to invade Java, an island in modern Indonesia, with 20,000 to 30,000 soldiers. This was intended as a punitive expedition against Kertanegara of Singhasari, who had refused to pay tribute to ...
in the late 13th century, the Hindu
Majapahit Majapahit (; (eastern and central dialect) or (western dialect)), also known as Wilwatikta (; ), was a Javanese people, Javanese Hinduism, Hindu-Buddhism, Buddhist thalassocracy, thalassocratic empire in Southeast Asia based on the island o ...
kingdom rose to dominate much of the archipelago under
Gajah Mada Gajah Mada (c. 1290 – c. 1364), also known as Jirnnodhara, was a powerful military leader and '' mahapatih''In full '' Mahapatih Hamengkubumi'', equivalent to the position of prime minister. of the Javanese empire of Majapahit during th ...
's leadership—a period often called the "Golden Age" of Indonesian history. Islam arrived in the 13th century in northern Sumatra, and following gradual adoption in other islands, it became the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the 16th century, blending with pre-existing traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture, particularly in Java.


Colonial era

In 1512, Europeans began arriving in the archipelago, led by Portuguese traders under
Francisco Serrão Francisco Serrão (died 1521) was a Portuguese explorer and a possible cousin of Ferdinand Magellan. His 1512 voyage was the first known European sailing east past Malacca through modern Indonesia and the East Indies. He became a confidant of S ...
, to seek a monopoly of the lucrative
spice trade The spice trade involved historical civilizations in Asia, Northeast Africa and Europe. Spices, such as cinnamon, cassia, cardamom, ginger, pepper, nutmeg, star anise, clove, and turmeric, were known and used in antiquity and traded in t ...
in the
Maluku Islands The Maluku Islands ( ; , ) or the Moluccas ( ; ) are an archipelago in the eastern part of Indonesia. Tectonics, Tectonically they are located on the Halmahera Plate within the Molucca Sea Collision Zone. Geographically they are located in West ...
. Dutch and British traders soon followed, with the former establishing the
Dutch East India Company The United East India Company ( ; VOC ), commonly known as the Dutch East India Company, was a chartered company, chartered trading company and one of the first joint-stock companies in the world. Established on 20 March 1602 by the States Ge ...
(''Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie'', VOC) in 1602, which eventually became the dominant European power for almost two centuries. After the VOC's dissolution in 1799 due to bankruptcy, the
Dutch East Indies The Dutch East Indies, also known as the Netherlands East Indies (; ), was a Dutch Empire, Dutch colony with territory mostly comprising the modern state of Indonesia, which Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, declared independence on 17 Au ...
was established as a nationalised colony, marking the beginning of formal colonial rule by the
Netherlands , Terminology of the Low Countries, informally Holland, is a country in Northwestern Europe, with Caribbean Netherlands, overseas territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of the four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Nether ...
. Over the next century and a half, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous, as they faced continuous rebellions from local leaders like Prince
Diponegoro Prince Diponegoro (; born Bendara Raden Mas Mustahar, ; later Bendara Raden Mas Antawirya, ; 11 November 1785 – 8 January 1855), also known as Dipanegara and Dipa Negara, was a Javanese prince who opposed the Dutch colonial rule. The eldest s ...
in central Java,
Imam Bonjol Tuanku Imam Bonjol (1772 – 6 November 1864), also known as Muhammad Syahab, Peto Syarif, and Malim Basa, was one of the most popular leaders of the Padri movement in Central Sumatra. He was declared a National Hero of Indonesia. Biogra ...
in central Sumatra,
Pattimura Thomas Matulessy (8 June 178316 December 1817), also known as Kapitan Pattimura or simply Pattimura, was a famous Ambonese soldier who became a symbol of both the Maluku and Indonesian struggle for independence, praised by President Sukarno ...
in Maluku, and fighters in Aceh. Dutch dominance only extended to Indonesia's modern boundaries in the early 20th century, with the establishment of Dutch posts in
New Guinea New Guinea (; Hiri Motu: ''Niu Gini''; , fossilized , also known as Papua or historically ) is the List of islands by area, world's second-largest island, with an area of . Located in Melanesia in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, the island is ...
. During
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
, the Japanese invasion and occupation of the Indies ended Dutch rule and encouraged Indonesia's independence movement. Only two days after
Japan's surrender The surrender of the Empire of Japan in World War II was announced by Emperor Hirohito on 15 August and formally signed on 2 September 1945, ending the war. By the end of July 1945, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) was incapable of conduc ...
in August 1945,
Sukarno Sukarno (6 June 1901 – 21 June 1970) was an Indonesian statesman, orator, revolutionary, and nationalist who was the first president of Indonesia, serving from 1945 to 1967. Sukarno was the leader of the Indonesian struggle for independenc ...
and
Mohammad Hatta Mohammad Hatta ( ; 12 August 1902 – 14 March 1980) was an Indonesian statesman, nationalist, and independence activist who served as the country's first Vice President of Indonesia, vice president as well as the third prime minister. Known as ...
issued the
Proclamation of Indonesian Independence The Proclamation of Indonesian Independence (, or simply ''Proklamasi'') was read at 10:00 Tokyo Standard Time on Friday 17 August 1945 in Jakarta. The declaration marked the start of the diplomatic and armed resistance of the Indonesian Nati ...
, and they became the country's first president and vice-president, along with
Sutan Sjahrir Sutan Sjahrir (5 March 1909 – 9 April 1966) was an Indonesian statesman and independence leader who served as the first Prime Minister of Indonesia, prime minister of Indonesia from 1945 until 1947. He played a key role during the Indonesian Na ...
as Prime Minister. The Netherlands attempted to re-establish their rule, prompting the start of Indonesia's war of independence against the Dutch. The conflict lasted until 1949, when the Dutch recognised Indonesian independence in the
Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference The Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference (; Indonesian: ) was held in The Hague from 23 August to 2 November 1949, between representatives of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the Republic of Indonesia and the Federal Consultative Assembly, ...
following international pressure. Despite political, social, and sectarian divisions, Indonesians found unity in their fight for independence.


Post-World War II

Sukarno shifted Indonesia from
democracy Democracy (from , ''dēmos'' 'people' and ''kratos'' 'rule') is a form of government in which political power is vested in the people or the population of a state. Under a minimalist definition of democracy, rulers are elected through competitiv ...
to
authoritarianism Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the rejection of political plurality, the use of strong central power to preserve the political ''status quo'', and reductions in democracy, separation of powers, civil liberties, and ...
and maintained power by balancing the opposing forces of political Islam, the military, and the
Communist Party of Indonesia The Communist Party of Indonesia (Indonesian language, Indonesian: ''Partai Komunis Indonesia'', PKI) was a communist party in the Dutch East Indies and later Indonesia. It was the largest non-ruling communist party in the world before its Indo ...
(PKI). Tensions between the latter two culminated in an attempted coup in 1965, leading to a violent anti-communist purge led by the Army's Major General
Suharto Suharto (8 June 1921 – 27 January 2008) was an Indonesian Officer (armed forces), military officer and politician, and dictator, who was the second and longest serving president of Indonesia, serving from 1967 to 1998. His 32 years rule, cha ...
that killed at least 500,000 people and imprisoned around a million more. The PKI was blamed for the coup and destroyed, weakening Sukarno's power. Suharto capitalised on this, becoming President in 1968 and establishing a US-backed "New Order" administration, which fostered
foreign direct investment A foreign direct investment (FDI) is an ownership stake in a company, made by a foreign investor, company, or government from another country. More specifically, it describes a controlling ownership an asset in one country by an entity based i ...
and drove three decades of substantial economic growth. Indonesia was the country worst affected by the
1997 Asian financial crisis The 1997 Asian financial crisis gripped much of East Asia, East and Southeast Asia during the late 1990s. The crisis began in Thailand in July 1997 before spreading to several other countries with a ripple effect, raising fears of a worldwide eco ...
, which brought out widespread discontent with the New Order's corruption and political suppression and ultimately ended Suharto's rule. In 1999, East Timor seceded after a controversial 25-year occupation following Indonesia's 1975 invasion. Since 1998, Indonesia has strengthened democracy by granting regional autonomy and holding the first direct presidential election in 2004. Political, economic and social instability and
terrorism Terrorism, in its broadest sense, is the use of violence against non-combatants to achieve political or ideological aims. The term is used in this regard primarily to refer to intentional violence during peacetime or in the context of war aga ...
were persistent in the 2000s. The economy has performed strongly since 2007, although
corruption Corruption is a form of dishonesty or a criminal offense that is undertaken by a person or an organization that is entrusted in a position of authority to acquire illicit benefits or abuse power for one's gain. Corruption may involve activities ...
remains a chronic issue. Relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious, but sectarian discontent and violence remain problematic in some areas. A political settlement to a separatist
insurgency in Aceh The insurgency in Aceh, officially designated the Rebellion in Aceh () by the Government of Indonesia, Indonesian government, was a conflict fought by the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) between 1976 and 2005, with the goal of making the province of ...
was achieved in 2005.


Geography

The southernmost country in Asia, Indonesia lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N and longitudes 95°E and 141°E. It is also a
transcontinental country This is a list of countries with territory that straddles more than one continent, known as transcontinental states or intercontinental states. Contiguous transcontinental countries are states that have one continuous or immediately-adjacent pie ...
, spanning Southeast Asia and Oceania and is the world's largest
archipelagic state An archipelagic state is an island country that consists of one or more archipelagos. The designation is legally defined by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 1982 ( UNCLOS III). The Bahamas, Fiji, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea ...
, stretching from east to west and from north to south. The exact number of Indonesia's islands varies according to different sources, usually ranging from 13,000 to 17,000, with around 922 permanently inhabited. Its five largest islands are
Sumatra Sumatra () is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the list of islands by area, sixth-largest island in the world at 482,286.55 km2 (182,812 mi. ...
,
Java Java is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea (a part of Pacific Ocean) to the north. With a population of 156.9 million people (including Madura) in mid 2024, proje ...
,
Borneo Borneo () is the List of islands by area, third-largest island in the world, with an area of , and population of 23,053,723 (2020 national censuses). Situated at the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia, it is one of the Greater Sunda ...
(shared with Brunei and Malaysia),
Sulawesi Sulawesi ( ), also known as Celebes ( ), is an island in Indonesia. One of the four Greater Sunda Islands, and the List of islands by area, world's 11th-largest island, it is situated east of Borneo, west of the Maluku Islands, and south of Min ...
, and
New Guinea New Guinea (; Hiri Motu: ''Niu Gini''; , fossilized , also known as Papua or historically ) is the List of islands by area, world's second-largest island, with an area of . Located in Melanesia in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, the island is ...
(shared with Papua New Guinea). The country features diverse topography, including towering mountains, vast lakes, and extensive river systems. At ,
Puncak Jaya Puncak Jaya (; literally "Victorious Peak", Amungme: ''Nemangkawi Ninggok'') or Carstensz Pyramid (, , ) on the island of New Guinea, with an elevation of , is the highest mountain peak of an island on Earth, and the highest peak in Indones ...
is Indonesia's highest peak, while
Lake Toba Lake Toba (, Toba Batak: ᯖᯀᯬ ᯖᯬᯅ; romanized: ''Tao Toba'') is a large natural lake in North Sumatra, Indonesia, occupying the caldera of the Toba supervolcano. The lake is located in the middle of the northern part of the island of ...
in Sumatra, covering , is the largest lake. The country's major rivers, primarily in Kalimantan, include Kapuas, Barito and Mahakam, serving as vital transportation and communication routes for remote riverine communities.


Climate

Indonesia's equatorial position ensures a relatively stable climate year-round, characterised by two main seasons: the
dry season The dry season is a yearly period of low rainfall, especially in the tropics. The weather in the tropics is dominated by the tropical rain belt, which moves from the northern to the southern tropics and back over the course of the year. The t ...
from May to October and the
wet season The wet season (sometimes called the rainy season or monsoon season) is the time of year when most of a region's average annual rainfall occurs. Generally, the season lasts at least one month. The term ''green season'' is also sometimes used a ...
from November to April, with no extremes of summer and winter. The climate is predominantly
tropical rainforest Tropical rainforests are dense and warm rainforests with high rainfall typically found between 10° north and south of the Equator. They are a subset of the tropical forest biome that occurs roughly within the 28° latitudes (in the torrid zo ...
, with cooler climates in mountainous areas over above sea level. The oceanic climate (Köppen ''Cfb'') prevails in highland areas adjacent to rainforest climates, with uniform precipitation year-round. In highland areas near the
tropical The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the equator, where the sun may shine directly overhead. This contrasts with the temperate or polar regions of Earth, where the Sun can never be directly overhead. This is because of Earth's ax ...
monsoon A monsoon () is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation but is now used to describe seasonal changes in Atmosphere of Earth, atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with annu ...
and
tropical savanna climate Tropical savanna climate or tropical wet and dry climate is a tropical climate sub-type that corresponds to the Köppen climate classification categories ''Aw'' (for a dry "winter") and ''As'' (for a dry "summer"). The driest month has less than ...
s, the subtropical highland climate (Köppen ''Cwb'') is more pronounced during the dry season. There is a variation in rainfall patterns, with regions like western Sumatra, Java, and the interiors of Kalimantan and Papua receiving more precipitation, while areas closer to Australia, such as Nusa Tenggara, are drier. The warm waters covering 81% of Indonesia's area keep land temperatures stable, with high humidity (70-90%) and moderate, predictable winds influenced by monsoon cycles. Major weather hazards include strong currents in straits, such as the
Lombok Lombok, is an island in West Nusa Tenggara province, Indonesia. It forms part of the chain of the Lesser Sunda Islands, with the Lombok Strait separating it from Bali to the west and the Alas Strait between it and Sumbawa to the east. It is rou ...
and
Sape Strait The Sape Strait () or Sapie Strait is a strait connecting the Flores Sea to the Sumba Strait. It separates the islands of Sumbawa and Komodo. It joins the Indonesian provinces of West Nusa Tenggara and East Nusa Tenggara. The Sape Strait ...
s, rather than typhoons or storms. Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from the projected effects of climate change, including a temperature rise of by 2050 due to unreduced emissions. This warming could intensify droughts, disrupt rainfall patterns critical to agriculture, and increase occurrences of food shortages, diseases, and wildfires.
Rising sea levels The sea level has been rising from the end of the last ice age, which was around 20,000 years ago. Between 1901 and 2018, the average sea level rose by , with an increase of per year since the 1970s. This was faster than the sea level had e ...
would also threaten densely populated coastal regions, and impoverished communities are expected to be disproportionately affected by climate change.


Geology

Indonesia's geology is shaped by its position on the Pacific
Ring of Fire The Ring of Fire (also known as the Pacific Ring of Fire, the Rim of Fire, the Girdle of Fire or the Circum-Pacific belt) is a tectonic belt of volcanoes and earthquakes. It is about long and up to about wide, and surrounds most of the Pa ...
, where the Indo-Australian and Pacific plates subduct beneath the Eurasian plate, where they melt at about deep. This tectonic activity makes the region highly unstable with volcanoes and earthquakes. A chain of volcanoes stretches from
Sumatra Sumatra () is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the list of islands by area, sixth-largest island in the world at 482,286.55 km2 (182,812 mi. ...
through
Java Java is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea (a part of Pacific Ocean) to the north. With a population of 156.9 million people (including Madura) in mid 2024, proje ...
,
Bali Bali (English:; Balinese language, Balinese: ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. East of Java and west of Lombok, the province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller o ...
and the
Lesser Sunda Islands The Lesser Sunda Islands (, , ), now known as Nusa Tenggara Islands (, or "Southeast Islands"), are an archipelago in the Indonesian archipelago. Most of the Lesser Sunda Islands are located within the Wallacea region, except for the Bali pro ...
, and the
Banda Islands The Banda Islands () are a volcanic group of ten small volcanic islands in the Banda Sea, about south of Seram Island and about east of Java (island), Java, and constitute an administrative district (''kecamatan'') within the Central Maluku ...
of
Maluku Maluku may refer to: Places * Maluku Islands, an archipelago that is part of Indonesia ** List of the Maluku Islands * Maluku (province), a province of Indonesia comprising the central and southern parts of the archipelago * North Maluku, a provin ...
to northeastern
Sulawesi Sulawesi ( ), also known as Celebes ( ), is an island in Indonesia. One of the four Greater Sunda Islands, and the List of islands by area, world's 11th-largest island, it is situated east of Borneo, west of the Maluku Islands, and south of Min ...
. Of the 400 volcanoes, around 130 are active. While
volcanic ash Volcanic ash consists of fragments of rock, mineral crystals, and volcanic glass, produced during volcanic eruptions and measuring less than 2 mm (0.079 inches) in diameter. The term volcanic ash is also often loosely used to r ...
has made agriculture unpredictable in some areas, it has also created fertile soils that have historically sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali. Between 1972 and 1991, Java experienced a total of 29 volcanic eruptions. The archipelago has witnessed several powerful volcanic eruptions with global repercussions. A massive supervolcano erupted with a maximum
volcanic explosivity index The volcanic explosivity index (VEI) is a scale used to measure the size of explosive volcanic eruptions. It was devised by Christopher G. Newhall of the United States Geological Survey and Stephen Self in 1982. Volume of products, eruption c ...
(VEI) of 8 at present-day
Lake Toba Lake Toba (, Toba Batak: ᯖᯀᯬ ᯖᯬᯅ; romanized: ''Tao Toba'') is a large natural lake in North Sumatra, Indonesia, occupying the caldera of the Toba supervolcano. The lake is located in the middle of the northern part of the island of ...
around 74,000 BCE, causing a global
volcanic winter A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by droplets of sulfuric acid obscuring the Sun and raising Earth's albedo (increasing the reflection of solar radiation) after a large, sulfur-rich, particularly explosive volcanic eru ...
, cooling the climate, and possibly influencing human evolution. The eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815, the most recently confirmed VEI-7 eruption, made much of the Northern Hemisphere without summer in 1816. The eruption of Mount Krakatoa in 1883, a VEI-6 eruption, produced the loudest sound in recorded history, with additional effects around the world years after the event. Recent catastrophic disasters due to seismic activity include the
2004 Indian Ocean earthquake On 26 December 2004, at 07:58:53 local time (UTC+07:00, UTC+7), a major earthquake with a magnitude of 9.2–9.3 struck with an epicenter, epicentre off the west coast of Aceh in northern Sumatra, Indonesia. The Submarine earthquake, undersea ...
and the 2018 Sulawesi earthquake.


Biodiversity

Recognised by
Conservation International Conservation International (CI) is an American nonprofit environmental organization headquartered in Crystal City, Virginia, in Arlington County, Virginia. CI's work focuses on science, policy and partnership with businesses, governments and co ...
as one of 17
megadiverse countries A megadiverse country is one of a group of nations that house the majority of Earth's species and high numbers of endemic species. Conservation International identified 17 megadiverse countries in 1998, all of which are located at least parti ...
, Indonesia hosts one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity due to its tropical climate, large size, and archipelagic geography. The country's flora and fauna include a mix of Asian and
Australasian Australasia is a subregion of Oceania, comprising Australia, New Zealand (overlapping with Polynesia), and sometimes including New Guinea and surrounding islands (overlapping with Melanesia). The term is used in a number of different contexts, ...
species. The
Sunda Shelf Geology, Geologically, the Sunda Shelf () is a south-eastern extension of the continental shelf of Mainland Southeast Asia. Major landmasses on the shelf include the Indonesia, Indonesian islands of Bali, Borneo, Java, Madura Island, Madura, an ...
islands (Sumatra, Java, and Borneo) have a wealth of Asian fauna as they were once linked to mainland Asia, while Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands, Maluku and Papua evolved unique ecosystems due to their separation from the continental landmasses. In terms of total
endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found only in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also foun ...
species, the Indonesian archipelago ranks among the highest globally. The country also boasts of coastline, featuring diverse sea and coastal ecosystems, such as dunes and mangroves, as well as coral reefs in the
Coral Triangle The Coral Triangle (CT) is a roughly triangular area in the tropical waters around Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Solomon Islands, and Timor-Leste. This area contains at least 500 species of reef-building corals in each ...
that harbour the highest diversity of
coral reef fish Coral reef fish are fish which live amongst or in close relation to coral reefs. Coral reefs form complex ecosystems with tremendous biodiversity. Among the myriad inhabitants, the fish stand out as colourful and interesting to watch. Hundreds ...
globally, with over 2,000 species. The
Wallace Line The Wallace Line or Wallace's Line is a faunal boundary line drawn in 1859 by the British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace and named by the English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley. It separates the biogeographic realms of Asia and 'Wallacea', a ...
, described by English naturalist
Alfred Russel Wallace Alfred Russel Wallace (8 January 1823 – 7 November 1913) was an English naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist, biologist and illustrator. He independently conceived the theory of evolution through natural selection; his 1858 pap ...
, marks the biogeographical divide between Asian and Australasian species, with the region between the Wallace and
Weber Line Max Carl Wilhelm Weber van Bosse or Max Wilhelm Carl Weber (5 December 1852 – 7 February 1937) was a Germans, German-Dutch people, Dutch zoology, zoologist and biogeography, biogeographer. Weber studied at the University of Bonn, then at t ...
s (called
Wallacea Wallacea is a biogeography, biogeographical designation for a group of mainly list of islands of Indonesia, Indonesian islands separated by deep-water straits from the Asian and Australia (continent), Australian continental shelf, continental ...
) hosting unique biodiversity as described in Wallace's 1869 book, ''
The Malay Archipelago ''The Malay Archipelago'' is a book by the English naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace which chronicles his scientific exploration, during the eight-year period 1854 to 1862, of the southern portion of the Malay Archipelago including Malaysia, S ...
''. Indonesia's extensive forests, comprising 83% of Southeast Asia's old-growth forests, are deemed crucial for the region's ecological balance and carbon storage. Indonesia faces severe
environmental challenges Environment most often refers to: __NOTOC__ * Natural environment, referring respectively to all living and non-living things occurring naturally and the physical and biological factors along with their chemical interactions that affect an organism ...
due to extensive deforestation, peatland destruction, and over-exploitation of resources, driven by industries such as logging, plantations and agriculture since the 1970s, and in most recent years, palm oil. Forest cover declined from 87% in 1950 to 48% in 2022, highlighting the country as a leading forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases. These issues are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance. They also threaten indigenous and endemic species, with the
International Union for Conservation of Nature The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. Founded in 1948, IUCN has become the global authority on the stat ...
(IUCN) listing many as critically endangered, such as the
Bali myna The Bali myna (''Leucopsar rothschildi''), also known as Rothschild's mynah, Bali starling, or Bali mynah, locally known as jalak Bali, is a medium-sized (up to long), stocky myna, almost wholly white with a long, drooping crest, and black tip ...
,
Sumatran orangutan The Sumatran orangutan (''Pongo abelii'') is one of the three species of orangutans. Critically endangered, and found only in the north of the Indonesian island of Sumatra, it is rarer than the Bornean orangutan but more common than the recently ...
, and
Javan rhinoceros The Javan rhinoceros (''Rhinoceros sondaicus''), Javan rhino, Sunda rhinoceros or lesser one-horned rhinoceros is a critically endangered member of the genus ''Rhinoceros'', of the rhinoceros family Rhinocerotidae, and one of the five remainin ...
. Environmental degradation has prompted some academics to label these activities as ecocide.


Conservation

As of 2023, Indonesia has designated 21.3% of its land as
protected areas Protected areas or conservation areas are locations which receive protection because of their recognized natural or cultural values. Protected areas are those areas in which human presence or the exploitation of natural resources (e.g. firewoo ...
and aims to align its strategy with the 2022
Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) is an outcome of the 2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference. Its tentative title had been the "Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework". The GBF was adopted by the 15th Conference of P ...
. Additionally, 411 marine reserves account for 9% of the country's maritime area, with a target to increase this to 30% by 2045. However, a recent study highlights that the current efforts are off track and existing marine reserves are poorly managed. Approximately 390 marine areas are managed by government bodies, communities, and other sectors, with potential for classification as
other effective area-based conservation measures Other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs) are sites outside of protected areas that are governed and managed in ways that deliver the long-term In-situ conservation, ''in situ'' conservation of biodiversity. As of March 2023, 856 suc ...
(OECMs), though there is no national mechanism for reporting them. Indonesia's conservation framework includes 55 national parks, covering around 9% of the country's surface area. Among these, nine are predominantly marine parks, with six recognised as
World Heritage Sites World Heritage Sites are landmarks and areas with legal protection under an international treaty administered by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, or scientific significance. The sites are judged to contain "cultural and natural heritag ...
, seven as part of the
World Network of Biosphere Reserves The UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) covers internationally designated protected areas, known as biosphere or nature reserves, which are meant to demonstrate a balanced relationship between people and nature (e.g. encourage susta ...
and five wetlands of international importance under the 1971
Ramsar Convention The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat is an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable use of Ramsar site, Ramsar sites (wetlands). It is also known as the Convention on We ...
. Notably, Indonesia has over 100 marine protected areas spanning 15.7 million hectares as of 2012, and these are managed by the Ministry of Forestry and local governments. Previous targets included reaching 20 million hectares by 2020 under former President
Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono (born 9 September 1949), commonly referred to as SBY, is an Indonesian politician and retired Indonesian Army, army general who served as the sixth president of Indonesia from 2004 to 2014 and the second president of Ind ...
's 2009 initiative and 10% of territorial waters, or 31 million hectares.


Government and politics

Indonesia is a
presidential republic A presidential, strong-president, or single-executive system (sometimes also congressional system) is a form of government in which a head of government (usually titled " president") heads an executive branch that derives its authority and l ...
. Following the fall of the New Order in 1998, sweeping
amendments to the Constitution of Indonesia The Constitution of Indonesia has been amended four times since its creation, all of which were approved by the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR) during the 1999 – 2002 period. The procedure to amend the constitution is dictated in Article 3 ...
restructured the state's executive, legislative, and judicial branches while maintaining a balance between its
unitary state A unitary state is a (Sovereign state, sovereign) State (polity), state governed as a single entity in which the central government is the supreme authority. The central government may create or abolish administrative divisions (sub-national or ...
framework and greater decentralisation to regional governments. The
president President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) * President (education), a leader of a college or university *President (government title) President may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Film and television *'' Præsident ...
serves as
head of state A head of state is the public persona of a sovereign state.#Foakes, Foakes, pp. 110–11 "
he head of state He or HE may refer to: Language * He (letter), the fifth letter of the Semitic abjads * He (pronoun), a pronoun in Modern English * He (kana), one of the Japanese kana (へ in hiragana and ヘ in katakana) * Ge (Cyrillic), a Cyrillic letter cal ...
being an embodiment of the State itself or representative of its international persona." The name given to the office of head of sta ...
,
head of government In the Executive (government), executive branch, the head of government is the highest or the second-highest official of a sovereign state, a federated state, or a self-governing colony, autonomous region, or other government who often presid ...
, and commander-in-chief of the
Indonesian National Armed Forces The Indonesian National Armed Forces (; abbreviated as TNI) are the military forces of the Republic of Indonesia. It consists of the Indonesian Army, Army (''TNI-AD''), Indonesian Navy, Navy (''TNI-AL''), and Indonesian Air Force, Air Force ('' ...
(''Tentara Nasional Indonesia'', TNI) and oversees domestic and foreign policies. Presidents may serve up to two consecutive five-year terms. The
People's Consultative Assembly The People's Consultative Assembly of the Republic of Indonesia (, MPR-RI) is the legislative branch in Indonesia's political system. It is composed of the members of a lower body, House of Representatives (DPR) and an upper body, Regional R ...
(''Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat'', MPR) is Indonesia's highest representative body, responsible for amending the constitution, inaugurating and impeaching the president, and formalising state policies. It consists of two houses: the
People's Representative Council The House of Representatives of the Republic of Indonesia (, DPR-RI or simply DPR) is one of two elected chambers of the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR), the national legislature of Indonesia. It is considered the lower house, while th ...
(''Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat'', DPR), which has 580 members and handles legislation and executive oversight, and the
Regional Representative Council The Regional Representative Council (, DPD; alternatively translatable as the House of Regions or the House of Regional Representatives or the Senate of Indonesia), is one of two parliamentary chambers in Indonesia. Together with the House o ...
(''Dewan Perwakilan Daerah'', DPD), which has 152 members and focuses on regional matters. Since 1998, reforms have significantly enhanced the DPR's governance functionality. The DPD represents the interests of the diverse
regions of Indonesia This is a list of some of the regions of Indonesia. Many regions are defined in law or regulations by the central government. At different times of Indonesia's history, the nation has been designated as having regions that do not necessarily cor ...
. Indonesia’s judiciary includes several key institutions. The
Supreme Court In most legal jurisdictions, a supreme court, also known as a court of last resort, apex court, high (or final) court of appeal, and court of final appeal, is the highest court within the hierarchy of courts. Broadly speaking, the decisions of ...
(''Mahkamah Agung'') is the highest judicial authority, handling final appeals and case reviews. The
Constitutional Court A constitutional court is a high court that deals primarily with constitutional law. Its main authority is to rule on whether laws that are challenged are in fact unconstitutional, i.e. whether they conflict with constitutionally established ru ...
(''Mahkamah Konstitusi'') addresses constitutional and political matters, while the country's Religious Court (''Pengadilan Agama'') oversees
Islamic Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...
personal law cases. Additionally, the Judicial Commission (''Komisi Yudisial'') monitors judicial performance.


Parties and elections

Since 1999, Indonesia has operated under a
multi-party system In political science, a multi-party system is a political system where more than two meaningfully-distinct political parties regularly run for office and win elections. Multi-party systems tend to be more common in countries using proportional ...
, wherein no single political party has secured an outright majority of seats in the
legislative elections A general election is an electoral process to choose most or all members of a governing body at the same time. They are distinct from by-elections, which fill individual seats that have become vacant between general elections. General elections ...
. Political parties are generally classified into two categories: secular and nationalist parties, which include the
Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle The Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (, PDI-P) is a centre to centre-left secular-nationalist political party in Indonesia. Since 2014, it has been the ruling and largest party in the House of Representatives (DPR), having won 110 seat ...
(PDI-P), the Party of the Functional Groups (''Golkar''), and the
Great Indonesia Movement Party The Great Indonesia Movement Party (), better known as the Gerindra Party, is a nationalist, right-wing populist political party in Indonesia. Since 2014, it has been the third-largest party in the House of Representatives (DPR), having won 86 s ...
(''Gerindra'' Party); and Islamic parties, such as the centrist
National Awakening Party The National Awakening Party (; , PKB), is an Islam-basedAl-Hamdi, Ridho. (2017). ''Moving towards a Normalised Path: Political Islam in Contemporary Indonesia''. JURNAL STUDI PEMERINTAHAN (JOURNAL OF GOVERNMENT & POLITICS). Vol. 8 No. 1, Febru ...
(PKB) and the Islamist
Prosperous Justice Party The Prosperous Justice Party (, sometimes called the Justice and Prosperity Party, Indonesian name literally translated "Party of Secure/Peaceful Justice"), frequently abbreviated to PKS, and formerly the Justice Party (, PK), is an Islamism, Isl ...
(PKS). Indonesia's political spectrum is characterised by a preference for pragmatism over ideological orthodoxy to fit the prevailing political climate, and by what are called cartel parties, with extensive power-sharing among parties and limited accountability to voters. Unlike many other democracies, pre-election party alliances are the norm in Indonesia. In 1955, the first general election was held to elect members of the DPR and the
Constitutional Assembly A constituent assembly (also known as a constitutional convention, constitutional congress, or constitutional assembly) is a body assembled for the purpose of drafting or revising a constitution. Members of a constituent assembly may be elected b ...
(''Konstituante''). The most recent elections in 2024 brought eight political parties to the DPR, with a
parliamentary threshold The electoral threshold, or election threshold, is the minimum share of votes that a candidate or political party requires before they become entitled to representation or additional seats in a legislature. This limit can operate in various w ...
of 4% of the national vote. At the national level, Indonesians did not elect a President until 2004. Since then, the President has been elected for a five-year term, as are the party-aligned members of the DPR and the non-partisan DPD. Beginning with the 2015 local elections, elections for governors and mayors have occurred on the same date. In 2013, the Constitutional Court ruled that legislative and presidential elections would be held simultaneously, starting in
2019 This was the year in which the first known human case of COVID-19 was documented, preceding COVID-19 pandemic, the pandemic which was declared by the World Health Organization the following year. Up to that point, 2019 had been described as ...
.


Administrative divisions

Indonesia is divided into several administrative levels. At the first level are the
provinces A province is an administrative division within a country or state. The term derives from the ancient Roman , which was the major territorial and administrative unit of the Roman Empire's territorial possessions outside Italy. The term ''provi ...
, each with a legislature (''Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah'', DPRD) and an elected
governor A governor is an politician, administrative leader and head of a polity or Region#Political regions, political region, in some cases, such as governor-general, governors-general, as the head of a state's official representative. Depending on the ...
. The number of provinces has grown from 8 in 1945 to 38 today, with the most recent one, Southwest Papua, established in 2022. The second level includes regencies (''kabupaten'') and cities (''kota''), led by regents (''bupati'') and mayors (''walikota''), respectively, both supported by legislatures (''DPRD Kabupaten/Kota''). Below this are
districts A district is a type of administrative division that in some countries is managed by the local government. Across the world, areas known as "districts" vary greatly in size, spanning regions or counties, several municipalities, subdivisions ...
(''kecamatan'', called ''distrik'' in Papua), and the fourth level comprises Villages of Indonesia, villages, known by various names like ''desa'', ''kelurahan'', ''kampung'', ''nagari'' (in West Sumatra), or ''gampong'' (in Aceh). Villages are subdivided into community groups (''rukun warga'', RW) and neighbourhood groups (''rukun tetangga'', RT), with further subdivisions like hamlets (''dusun'' or ''dukuh'') in Java. The village level is the lowest administrative unit but significantly influences daily life. Village governments are led by elected heads (''lurah'' or ''kepala desa'') and handle local matters. Since the implementation of regional autonomy in 2001, regencies and cities have become key administrative units responsible for most government services. Nine provinces (Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, and the six provinces in Western New Guinea#Current government, Papua) are granted a special autonomous status (''otonomi khusus'') from the central government. A conservative Islamism, Islamic territory, Aceh has the right to apply aspects of sharia law. Yogyakarta uniquely retains its List of Indonesian monarchies, pre-colonial monarchy, with its Yogyakarta Sultanate, Sultan and Pakualaman, Duke serving as governor and vice governor, while the provinces in Papua are granted special autonomy to address separatist tensions, accelerate development, and provide Papuans with greater self-governance, aiming to integrate the region more equally with the rest of Indonesia.


Foreign relations

Indonesia follows an "independent and active" (''bebas aktif'') foreign policy, a term coined in 1948 by the country's first vice-president,
Mohammad Hatta Mohammad Hatta ( ; 12 August 1902 – 14 March 1980) was an Indonesian statesman, nationalist, and independence activist who served as the country's first Vice President of Indonesia, vice president as well as the third prime minister. Known as ...
. This policy aims to navigate great power politics, maintain autonomy, and avoid alignment with major powers. The President holds the ultimate authority in determining foreign policy directions, while the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Indonesia), Foreign Affairs Ministry is responsible for formulating and implementing foreign policy. Meanwhile, the Parliament (DPR) provides oversight and ratifies international treaties. Indonesia is considered to be a
middle power A middle power is a state that is not a superpower or a great power, but still exerts influence and plays a significant role in international relations. These countries often possess certain capabilities, such as strong economies, advanced tech ...
in global politics. As the largest country in Southeast Asia and a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Indonesia considers ASEAN the cornerstone of its foreign policy. Indonesia has Indonesia–Palestine relations, actively supported Palestine while refraining from formal Indonesia–Israel relations, diplomatic relations with Israel. However, the two countries maintain discreet ties. Since the start of the 21st century, Indonesia has built deep China–Indonesia relations, relations with China, primarily relating to investments in infrastructure and trade, while at the same time maintaining a strategic Indonesia–United States relations, partnership with the United States, focusing on economic cooperation, security, and counterterrorism efforts. Indonesia has been Indonesia and the United Nations, a member of the United Nations since 1950 and is a founding member of the
Non-Aligned Movement The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a forum of 121 countries that Non-belligerent, are not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc. It was founded with the view to advancing interests of developing countries in the context of Cold W ...
(NAM), the
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC; ; ), formerly the Organisation of the Islamic Conference, is an intergovernmental organisation founded in 1969. It consists of Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, 57 member s ...
(OIC) and the
East Asia Summit The East Asia Summit (EAS) is a regional forum held annually by leaders of, initially, 16 countries in the East Asian, Southeast Asian, South Asian and Oceanian regions, based on the Association of Southeast Asian Nations#ASEAN Plus Three and A ...
. Indonesia is also a signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the Cairns Group, and the
World Trade Organization The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland that regulates and facilitates international trade. Governments use the organization to establish, revise, and enforce the rules that g ...
(WTO). Indonesia has been a humanitarian and development aid recipient since the late 1960s, but it recently established its own foreign aid agency in 2019. The country also plays a role in maintaining international peace and security, deploying thousands of military and police personnel to multiple United Nations peacekeeping missions since 1957, including in United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon, Lebanon, the MONUSCO, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali, Mali.


Military

The
Indonesian National Armed Forces The Indonesian National Armed Forces (; abbreviated as TNI) are the military forces of the Republic of Indonesia. It consists of the Indonesian Army, Army (''TNI-AD''), Indonesian Navy, Navy (''TNI-AL''), and Indonesian Air Force, Air Force ('' ...
(TNI) consists of the Indonesian Army, Army (TNI-AD), Indonesian Navy, Navy (TNI-AL) (including the Indonesian Marine Corps, Marine Corps), and Indonesian Air Force, Air Force (TNI-AU), with active personnel numbering approximately 300,400 in the Army, 65,000 in the Navy, and 30,100 in the Air Force. Established during the Indonesian National Revolution, the TNI initially engaged in guerrilla warfare alongside informal militias. Its territorial structure focuses on maintaining domestic stability and deterring foreign threats. Though political reforms in 1998 removed TNI's formal legislative role, it continues to wield political influence, albeit reduced from Dwifungsi, its peak during the New Order. Defence spending in 2023 was 0.7% of GDP, with controversies surrounding military-owned commercial ventures. Since independence, Indonesia has struggled to maintain unity against separatist movements and insurgencies, notably in Insurgency in Aceh, Aceh and Papuan conflict, Papua. While the former ended peacefully in 2005, the latter has continued amid the implementation of regional autonomy and well-documented human rights abuses by the TNI, including extrajudicial killings, forced disappearances and restrictions on freedom of expression, as reported by Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and the UNHRC. Indonesia's historical military engagements include West New Guinea dispute, conflicts with the Netherlands over Dutch New Guinea, opposition to the British-backed creation of Malaysia (''Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, Konfrontasi''), the anti-communist mass killings, and the Indonesian invasion of East Timor, invasion of East Timor, which was Indonesia's largest military operation.


Law enforcement and human rights

Law enforcement in Indonesia is primarily handled by the Indonesian National Police (POLRI), supported by other agencies under the President, ministries, or state-owned companies. These agencies perform specific policing duties and are supervised and trained by the POLRI, which serves as the country's national civilian police force responsible for maintaining law and order. Indonesia has a documented history of racial discrimination and conflicts, particularly Discrimination against Chinese Indonesians, against Chinese Indonesians and Papuans, which have at times escalated into violence, notably the May 1998 riots of Indonesia, anti-Chinese riots in 1998 and the ongoing Papua conflict since 1962. Other minorities, such as the LGBTQ, also face challenges, where a rapid surge of anti-LGBTQ rhetoric has been observed since the mid-2010s after relative obscurity on LGBTQ rights in Indonesia, the topic in the decades prior. Discrimination against religious minorities is also common. Issues regarding free speech and the right to assembly are prevalent despite constitutional protections. Laws such as the Electronic Information and Transactions (''Informasi dan Transaksi Elektronik'', ITE) Law are often used to criminalise dissent, with critics and activists facing charges for expressing opinions online. Peaceful protests, particularly those addressing sensitive issues such as indigenous rights in Papua or environmental concerns, are frequently met with a heavy-handed response from law enforcement. The government occasionally imposes restrictions on assembly permits, particularly for those critical of authorities or advocating rights.


Economy

Indonesia operates a mixed economy where the private sector and the government play significant roles. As the only
G20 The G20 or Group of 20 is an intergovernmental forum comprising 19 sovereign countries, the European Union (EU), and the African Union (AU). It works to address major issues related to the global economy, such as international financial stabil ...
member state in Southeast Asia, it has the region's largest economy and is classified as a
newly industrialised country The category of newly industrialized country (NIC), newly industrialized economy (NIE) or middle-income country is a socioeconomic classification applied to several countries around the world by political scientists and economists. They represen ...
. In 2024, its nominal GDP was , List of countries by GDP (nominal), ranking 16th globally, while its GDP at purchasing power parity (PPP) was , List of countries by GDP (PPP), ranking 7th. Per capita GDP in PPP is , while nominal gross domestic product, per capita GDP is . In 2021, services dominate the economy in terms of employment (49.2%), followed by agriculture (28.9%) and industry (21.7%), while in terms of share of GDP in 2022, both services and industry dominate (roughly 41% each), followed by manufacturing (18.3%) and agriculture (12.4%). The economic structure has Economic history of Indonesia, shifted significantly over time, transitioning from agriculture in the 1950s and 1960s to gradual industrialisation and urbanisation from the late 1960s to the 1980s. Falling oil prices in the 1980s prompted diversification into manufactured exports, resulting in substantial economic growth (the GDP rose at an average rate of 7.1%) and poverty reduction from 40% to 11%. However, the economy took a severe hit during the 1997 Asian financial crisis, Asian economic crisis in the late 1990s, when the GDP fell by 13%, inflation reached 78%, and GDP grew by only 0.8% in 1999. Recovery began in the early 2000s, with prudent banking regulations, better monetary and fiscal policies and flexible exchange rates, resulting in growth rates between 4% and 6% since 2004. These factors, coupled with strong domestic consumption, helped Indonesia weather the 2008 financial crisis. The COVID-19 pandemic in the early 2020s caused a recession, but the economy rebounded within just a year. Indonesia's abundant natural resources, including nickel, coal, and petroleum, dominate its export portfolio. It imports refined and crude petroleum and vehicle parts, with major trade partners including China, the United States, Japan, Singapore, India, Malaysia, South Korea, and Thailand. Owing to plentiful rainfall, sunshine and fertile soil, Indonesia is a Agriculture in Indonesia, major agricultural country, ranking among the leading producers of palm oil, rubber, coffee, tea, cassava, rice, wheat, coconut oil, and tobacco. Despite these resources and decades of development, disparities in wealth, employment and economic opportunities persist between densely populated and economically advantaged regions in the western islands like Java and Sumatra and sparsely populated, underdeveloped areas in the east like Maluku and Papua.


Tourism

Tourism plays a significant role in Indonesia's economy, contributing to GDP and drawing 11.6 million international visitors in 2023. Australia, Singapore, Malaysia, China, and India are among the top five sources of visitors to Indonesia. The tourism industry thrives on Indonesia's natural and cultural wealth. The country boasts a well-preserved natural ecosystem, with rainforests covering 57% of its land area (225 million acres). Popular natural destinations include the rainforests of Sumatra and Kalimantan, particularly the Orangutan wildlife reserves. Indonesia also has one of the world's longest coastlines, stretching . Cultural tourism features prominently, with attractions like the ancient
Borobudur Borobudur, also transcribed Barabudur (, ), is a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple in Magelang Regency, near the city of Magelang and the town of Muntilan, in Central Java, Indonesia. Constructed of gray andesite-like stone, the temple consi ...
and
Prambanan Prambanan (, , Javanese script, Hanacaraka: ꦫꦫꦗꦺꦴꦁꦒꦿꦁ) is a 9th-century Hindu temple, Hindu Candi of Indonesia, temple compound in the Special Region of Yogyakarta, in southern Java, Indonesia, dedicated to the Trimurti, Trimūr ...
temples, the Toraja highlands, and the traditional festivities of
Bali Bali (English:; Balinese language, Balinese: ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. East of Java and west of Lombok, the province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller o ...
. Indonesia is home to List of World Heritage Sites in Indonesia, ten UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including Komodo National Park and the Yogyakarta, Cosmological Axis of Yogyakarta. Additionally, 18 other sites are on the tentative list, such as Bunaken National Park and the Raja Ampat Islands. Historical tourism is also a major draw, with attractions like the colonial heritage of the Dutch East Indies in Kota Tua Jakarta, Jakarta and Dutch architecture in Semarang, Semarang, as well as the List of palaces in Indonesia, royal palaces of Pagaruyung Palace, Pagaruyung and Ubud Palace, Ubud.


Science and technology

Government spending on research and development is relatively low at 0.28% of GDP in 2020. Despite being ranked 54th among 133 countries on the 2024 Global Innovation Index, the country performs above expectations for its upper middle-income status. Historical innovations include ''Terrace (agriculture), terasering'', the terracing techniques for rice cultivation, and the ''pinisi'' boats of the Bugis and Makassar people. In the 1980s, Tjokorda Raka Sukawati developed the Sosrobahu road construction technique that is now used internationally. Indonesia also produces passenger trains and freight wagons through its state-owned Industri Kereta Api, Indonesian Railway Industry (''Industri Kereta Api'', INKA), which exports trains abroad. Indonesia has a history of manufacturing military and commuter aircraft and is the only country in Southeast Asia to do so. Its state-owned aerospace company, Indonesian Aerospace (''PT. Dirgantara Indonesia'', PTDI), has supplied components to Boeing and Airbus and co-developed the CASA/IPTN CN-235, CN-235 with Spain's CASA (aircraft manufacturer), CASA. Former President B. J. Habibie, an aerospace engineer before getting into politics, played a key role in advancing the country's aerospace research. Recently, Indonesia has been collaborating with South Korea on the 4.5-generation fighter jet KAI KF-21 Boramae. Indonesia's space program, managed by the National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (''Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional'', LAPAN), launched its first satellite (''Palapa'') in 1976 with assistance from the United States, making Indonesia the first developing country with a satellite system. As of 2024, Indonesia has launched 19 satellites for communication and other purposes. Recently, the government licensed Starlink to provide internet connectivity to rural and underserved regions.


Infrastructure


Transport

Indonesia's transport system reflects its archipelagic geography and population distribution, which is heavily concentrated on Java. As of 2022, the predominant road network spanned , including Transjakarta, which operates the world's longest bus rapid transit system. Common urban transport includes rickshaws like ''bajaj'' and ''becak'' and shared taxis such as ''angkot'' and minibuses. Railways are primarily located in Java and parts of Sumatra and Sulawesi, serving freight and passenger transport, including commuter and inter-city rail services like those in KRL Commuterline, Greater Jakarta and KAI Commuter Yogyakarta Line, Yogyakarta. In the late 2010s, rapid transit systems were introduced in Jakarta and Palembang, with more planned for other cities. In collaboration with China, Indonesia inaugurated its first High-speed rail in Indonesia, high-speed rail (''Whoosh'') in 2023, connecting Jakarta and Bandung. It was the first such system in Southeast Asia and the Southern Hemisphere. Air and sea transport also play significant roles. Soekarno–Hatta International Airport, Indonesia's largest, List of busiest airports by passenger traffic, served 54 million passengers in 2024, followed by Ngurah Rai International Airport, Ngurah Rai and Juanda International Airports. Garuda Indonesia, the national flag carrier since 1949, is one of the world's leading airlines and a member of the global airline alliance SkyTeam. The Port of Tanjung Priok, the country's busiest and most advanced, handles over 50% of Indonesia's trans-shipment cargo traffic.


Energy

Indonesia is a Energy in Indonesia, major energy producer and consumer, producing and consuming worth of energy in 2023. The country's total Electricity generation, installed power generation capacity in 2022 is approximately 83.8 gigawatts (GW), primarily from coal (61%). Other significant sources include natural gas, oil, and renewables such as geothermal, hydropower, and solar. The state-owned Perusahaan Listrik Negara, State Electricity Company (''Perusahaan Listrik Negara'', PLN) holds a monopoly on electric power distribution in the country. Indonesia's energy mix is still dominated by non-renewable sources, with coal being the majority, followed by natural gas and oil. Renewables, including geothermal (5%), hydropower (7%), and solar (1%), make up a smaller but growing share. The potential for renewable energy is immense, particularly geothermal, where the country ranks as one of the world's largest producers. The country is one of the world's largest producers and exporters of coal and a significant exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG). The government plans to transition towards greener energy sources and achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. In the latest energy plan in early 2025, the government aims for a 71-gigawatt expansion in power capacity by 2034, with a focus on renewables. However, the country has insufficient infrastructure for renewable energy, faces difficulties in providing electricity access to remote areas, and continues to rely heavily on coal.


Demographics

According to the 2020 Indonesian census, 2020 census, Demographics of Indonesia, Indonesia had a population of 270.2 million, making it the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fourth most populous country. The population grew at a rate of 1.25% between 2010 and 2020. Java, the world's most populated island, is home to 56% of Indonesia's population. The overall population density stands at , but Java's density is significantly higher, reaching . Indonesia's first post-colonial census in 1961 recorded a population of 97 million, and projections estimate it will grow to 321 million by 2050. The country maintains a relatively young demographic, with a median age of 31.5 years as of 2024. Indonesia's population distribution is highly uneven, reflecting its diverse geography and List of Indonesian provinces by Human Development Index, varying levels of development. It ranges from the bustling megacity of Jakarta to remote and Uncontacted peoples, uncontacted tribes in Papua. As of 2023, approximately 59% of Indonesians live in urban areas, with Jakarta as the country's primate city and the List of largest cities, second-most populous urban area globally, housing over 34 million people. Additionally, about 8 million Overseas Indonesians, Indonesians reside overseas, with large communities in Malaysia, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia.


Ethnic groups and languages

Indonesia is home to around 600 distinct native ethnic groups, predominantly descended from
Austronesian peoples The Austronesian people, sometimes referred to as Austronesian-speaking peoples, are a large group of peoples who have settled in Taiwan, maritime Southeast Asia, parts of mainland Southeast Asia, Micronesia, coastal New Guinea, Island Melan ...
speaking Proto-Austronesian languages, likely from modern-day Taiwan. The
Melanesians Melanesians are the predominant and Indigenous peoples of Oceania, indigenous inhabitants of Melanesia, in an area stretching from New Guinea to the Fiji Islands. Most speak one of the many languages of the Austronesian languages, Austronesian l ...
, who inhabit eastern Indonesia, represent another significant ethnic grouping. The Javanese, making up 40% of the population, are the largest ethnic group and the politically dominant one, primarily residing in central and eastern Java, with sizeable numbers in other provinces. Other major groups include the Sundanese people, Sundanese, Malay Indonesians, Malay, Batak, Madurese people, Madurese, Betawi people, Betawi, Minangkabau people, Minangkabau, and Bugis people, Bugis. A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities. The official language, Indonesian language, Indonesian, is a variant of Malay language, Malay based on its Prestige (sociolinguistics), prestige dialect, which became the archipelago's ''lingua franca'' over the course of centuries. It was first Youth Pledge, promoted by nationalists in the 1920s and gained official status in 1945, following independence, under the name ''Bahasa Indonesia'', and has since been widely adopted due to its use in education, media, business, and governance. While nearly all Indonesians speak ''Bahasa'', most also speak one of over 700 local languages, often as their first language. These are predominantly from the Austronesian languages, Austronesian family, with over 270 Papuan languages in eastern Indonesia. Javanese language, Javanese is the most widely spoken local language and holds co-official status in Special Region of Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta. The Dutch people, Dutch and other European-descended populations like the Indo people, Indos, though significant during colonial times, always represented a small fraction of the population, numbering only around 200,000 in 1930. The Dutch language never gained substantial traction due to the Dutch colonial focus on commerce rather than cultural integration. Dutch fluency exists today in small numbers among some older generations and legal professionals, as specific legal codes remain available only in that language.


Religion

Indonesia officially recognises Religion in Indonesia, six religions:
Islam Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...
, Protestantism in Indonesia, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism in Indonesia, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism in Indonesia, Hinduism, Buddhism in Indonesia, Buddhism, and Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia, Confucianism, while acknowledging religious freedom in the constitution and indigenous religions for administrative purposes. As of 2023, 87.1% of the population (248 million Indonesians) are Muslims, making Indonesia the world's most populous Muslim-majority country, with Sunnis constituting 99% of the Muslim population. Christians, comprising 10% of the population, form majorities in several eastern provinces, while Hindus and Buddhists are primarily Balinese and Chinese Indonesians, respectively. Before the arrival of major world religions, Indonesia's natives practised animism and Dynamism (metaphysics), dynamism, worshipping ancestral spirits and believing in the supernatural (''hyang'') inhabiting natural elements, such as large trees, mountains and forests. Such beliefs are common to the
Austronesian peoples The Austronesian people, sometimes referred to as Austronesian-speaking peoples, are a large group of peoples who have settled in Taiwan, maritime Southeast Asia, parts of mainland Southeast Asia, Micronesia, coastal New Guinea, Island Melan ...
. These indigenous traditions, such as Sundanese Sunda Wiwitan, Javanese Kejawèn and Dayak's Kaharingan, have profoundly influenced modern religious practices, resulting in a less orthodox and syncretic form of faith like Javanese abangan, Balinese Hinduism and Dayak Christianity. Hinduism reached the archipelago in the 1st century CE, followed by Buddhism in the 6th century. Both religions shaped Indonesia's religious history through influential empires like Majapahit, Srivijaya, and Sailendra, leaving a lasting cultural impact that remains today despite both no longer being the majority. Islam arrived as early as the 8th century through Sunni and Sufi traders from the
Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a physiographic region of Asia below the Himalayas which projects into the Indian Ocean between the Bay of Bengal to the east and the Arabian Sea to the west. It is now divided between Bangladesh, India, and Pakista ...
and South Arabia, southern Arabian peninsula, mixing with local cultural and religious traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture (''Pesantren, santri''). By the 16th century, Islam had become the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra, resulting from the blend of trade, Islamic missionary activity, ''dawah'', such as by the Wali Sanga and Chinese explorer Zheng He, and military campaigns by several sultanates. Catholicism and Protestantism were later introduced through missionary efforts during European colonisation, such as by Jesuit Francis Xavier, though the spread of the former faced challenges under the VOC and Dutch colonial era policies. The latter's primary branches include Calvinism and Lutheranism, though a multitude of other denominations exist in the country. A small Jewish presence has existed in the archipelago, primarily descendants of Dutch and Iraqi Jews, though their numbers have dwindled since independence in 1945. Only a few Jews remain today, mostly in major cities like Jakarta, Manado and Surabaya. One of the remaining synagogues, Sha'ar Hashamayim Synagogue (Tondano), Sha'ar Hashamayim, is located in Tondano, North Sulawesi, around 31 km from Manado. Religion is central to the lives of the overwhelming majority of Indonesians, reflecting its integral role in the country's society, culture, and identity. Interfaith relations are significantly shaped by political leadership and civil society, guided by the first principle of Pancasila, which emphasises belief in a supreme deity and religious tolerance. While it promotes harmony, religious intolerance continues to be a recurring issue.


Education

Indonesia has Education in Indonesia, one of the largest education systems in the world, with over 50 million students, 4 million teachers, and more than 250,000 schools spanning the archipelago. Overseen by the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, and Technology (Indonesia), Ministry of Higher Education, Science, and Technology and the Ministry of Religious Affairs (Indonesia), Ministry of Religious Affairs for Islamic schools, the system follows a 6-3-3-4 structure: six years of elementary school, three years each of junior and senior secondary school, and four years of tertiary education. While the literacy rate is high (96%), it is lower in rural and remote areas. Enrolment rates vary across educational levels, with near-universal enrolment in primary education (97.9%), but drop to 81.7% and 64.2% in lower and upper secondary education and around 42.6% for tertiary education. Government spending on education accounted for approximately 1.3% of GDP in 2023. In the same year, there were 4,481 higher education institutions in the country, including universities, Islamic institutions, and open universities. The University of Indonesia, Gadjah Mada University, and the Bandung Institute of Technology are the top three universities in the country, all of which rank within the world's top 300 universities. Issues regarding quality and equity are persistent, particularly urban-rural disparities, inadequate school infrastructure, and a lack of qualified teachers. The system also lags behind international benchmarks, such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), where Indonesian students consistently rank near the bottom in reading, mathematics, and science. The higher education sector has been struggling with underfunding, low quality, limited research output and a mismatch between graduates' skills and labour market needs.


Healthcare

Indonesia has made significant progress in developing its Healthcare in Indonesia, healthcare system since 1945. Initially, healthcare services were limited, with a shortage of doctors, hospitals, and infrastructure. In the late 1960s, the government began establishing Puskesmas, community health centres (''puskesmas'') to provide basic services in rural areas. With the help of the World Health Organization in the 1970s and 1980s, Indonesia implemented an immunisation program to combat diseases like polio and measles. The system experienced a major transformation in 2014 with the launch of ''Healthcare in Indonesia#Universal health coverage, Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional'' (JKN), a universal health care managed by the BPJS Kesehatan, Social Security Agency on Health (''BPJS Kesehatan''). It is one of the world's largest Single-payer healthcare, single-payer systems, covering over 83% of the population (225.9 million) in 2021. Government spending on healthcare accounted for 2.69% of GDP in 2022. Primary healthcare is delivered through ''puskesmas'', hospitals, and private clinics. While the healthcare system lags behind those in ASEAN neighbours like Malaysia and Singapore, significant public health outcomes have been achieved, such as an increase in life expectancy (from 54.9 years in 1973 to 71.1 years in 2023), a decline in child mortality (from 15.5 deaths per 100 live births in 1972 to 2.1 deaths in 2022), polio eradication in 2014, and decreasing cases of malaria. Some chronic health issues persist, including Stunted growth, child stunting that affects 21.6% of children under five according to a 2022 data. Low air quality, particularly in major cities, contributes to respiratory illnesses, while maternal and child health indicators remain areas of concern, with a Maternal death, maternal mortality rate the third highest in the region. Additionally, Indonesia has one of the Smoking in Indonesia, highest smoking rates globally (34.8% of adults), contributing to a high prevalence of non-communicable diseases like cardiovascular issues and lung cancer.


Culture

The cultural history of Indonesia spans over two thousand years and has been influenced by the Indian subcontinent, China, the Middle East, Europe, Melanesian, and Austronesian peoples. These influences have shaped the country's multicultural, multilingual, and multi-ethnic identity, distinct from its indigenous roots. Indonesia holds UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists, 16 items recognised by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage, including wayang puppet theatre, batik, angklung, the saman dance, and pencak silat. Recent joint nominations added pantun, kebaya, and kolintang to the list.


Art and architecture

Indonesian arts encompass traditional and contemporary forms shaped by influences from India, the Arab world, China, and Europe, driven by cultural exchange and trade. Bali's Balinese art, artistic traditions, such as classical Kamasan and Wayang-style painting, are renowned, originating from visual narratives depicted on Candi of Indonesia, candi bas-reliefs from eastern Java. Traditional architecture reflects ethnic diversity, with iconic and traditional houses (''rumah adat'') like Toraja's ''Tongkonan'', Minangkabau's ''Rumah Gadang'', Java's ''Pendopo'', and Dayak people, Dayak longhouses each showcasing unique customs and histories. Other traditional crafts, including carpentry and masonry, showcase intricate decorations and techniques passed down through generations. Discoveries of Megalithic art, megalithic sculptures led to the flourishing of tribal art among the Nias, Batak, Asmat, Dayak, and Toraja communities, who utilised wood and stone as primary sculpting materials. From the 8th to the 15th centuries, the Javanese civilisation excelled in sophisticated stone sculpting and architecture, heavily influenced by the Hindu-Buddhist Dharmic culture. This period produced monumental works like the
Borobudur Borobudur, also transcribed Barabudur (, ), is a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple in Magelang Regency, near the city of Magelang and the town of Muntilan, in Central Java, Indonesia. Constructed of gray andesite-like stone, the temple consi ...
and
Prambanan Prambanan (, , Javanese script, Hanacaraka: ꦫꦫꦗꦺꦴꦁꦒꦿꦁ) is a 9th-century Hindu temple, Hindu Candi of Indonesia, temple compound in the Special Region of Yogyakarta, in southern Java, Indonesia, dedicated to the Trimurti, Trimūr ...
temples, which today remain celebrated as masterpieces of Indonesia's sophisticated artistic and architectural heritage.


Music, dance and clothing

Indonesia's musical heritage predates historical records, with indigenous tribes using chants and traditional instruments like the angklung, gamelan, and sasando in rituals. Influences from other cultures have enriched Indonesian music, such as the Qanbūs, gambus and qasida from the Middle East, keroncong from Portugal, and dangdut (one of the country's most popular music genres), which incorporates Hindi, Malay, and Middle Eastern elements. Today, Indonesian music enjoys regional popularity in Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei due to cultural similarities and Comparison of Indonesian and Standard Malay, language intelligibility. With over 3,000 traditional dances, Indonesian dance forms have their origins in rituals and religious worship, such as the dance of witch doctors and Hudoq, as well as periods of Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic influence. While modern and urban dances shaped by Western, Japanese, and South Korean cultures are gaining popularity, traditional dances like those of Java, Bali, and Dayak remain a living tradition. Indonesia's rich cultural history is also reflected in its diverse clothing styles. National costumes like batik and kebaya are widely recognised, with roots in Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese cultures.Jill Forshee, ''Culture and customs of Indonesia'', Greenwood Publishing Group: 2006: . 237 pp. Traditional attire varies by region and province, such as the Batak ulos, Malay and Minangkabau songket, and Sasak ikat, and is commonly worn for ceremonies, weddings, and formal events.


Theatre and cinema

Traditional Indonesian theatre, such as wayang shadow puppetry, often depicts Hindu epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Other forms of drama, such as ''Ludruk'', ''Ketoprak'', ''Sandiwara'', ''Lenong'', and Balinese dance dramas, often incorporate humour, music, and audience interaction. Unique traditions like the Minangkabau ''Randai'' combine music, dance, and martial arts (''silat''), telling semi-historical legends during traditional ceremonies and festivals. Modern theatre, exemplified by ''Teater Koma'', addresses social and political themes through satire. The first film produced in the archipelago was ''Loetoeng Kasaroeng'' (1926), a silent film by Dutch director L. Heuveldorp, and the film industry expanded post-independence with Usmar Ismail's pioneering work in the 1950s. During the latter part of the Sukarno era in the 1960s, films were used to promote nationalism and anti-Western sentiment, while Suharto's New Order imposed censorship to maintain social order. Film productions peaked in the 1980s with notable titles such as ''Satan's Slave (1980 film), Pengabdi Setan'' (1980), ''Tjoet Nja' Dhien'' (1988) and ''Warkop'' comedy films, but the industry declined in the next decade. In the post-Suharto era, the industry saw a resurgence. Independent filmmakers tackled previously censored themes like race, religion, and love, producing notable films such as ''Kuldesak'' (1999) and ''Ada Apa dengan Cinta?'' (2002). The 2022 film ''KKN di Desa Penari'' set box office records, becoming the most-watched Indonesian film with 9.2 million tickets sold. The Indonesian Film Festival (''Festival Film Indonesia''), which gives out the Citra Award, has celebrated cinematic achievements since 1955. File:Wayang Wong Bharata Pandawa.jpg, The Pandavas and Krishna in an act of the ''Wayang Wong'' performance, alt= File:Loetoeng Kasaroeng p67.jpg, Advertisement for ''Loetoeng Kasaroeng'' (1926), the first fiction film produced in the Dutch East Indies


Mass media and literature

Media of Indonesia, Media freedom in Indonesia significantly improved after the fall of Suharto's rule, during which the Ministry of Information tightly controlled the media. The television landscape shifted from a monopoly by the public broadcaster TVRI (1962–1989) to a competitive market with national and provincial networks. By the 21st century, television signals have reached every village, offering up to 11 channels. Private radio stations provide news, while foreign broadcasters offer diverse programming. Print publications also expanded significantly after 1998. Indonesia's internet development began in the early 1990s, with the first commercial Internet service provider, PT. Indo Internet, starting operations in 1994. By 2023, the country had 210 million internet users, with mobile phones as the primary point of access. Internet penetration continues to grow annually. Indonesian literature has roots in Sanskrit inscriptions from the 5th century and a strong oral tradition, while early modern literature originates in the Sumatran tradition. Traditional forms such as ''syair'', ''pantun'', ''hikayat'', and ''babad'' dominate early prose and poetry, with notable works such as ''Syair Abdul Muluk'', ''Hikayat Hang Tuah'', ''Sulalatus Salatin'', and ''Babad Tanah Jawi''. The establishment of ''Balai Pustaka'' in 1917 marked a push to develop indigenous literature, leading to a literary Golden Age in the 1950s and 1960s. Influenced by the country's political and social landscape dynamics, modern literature includes works from notable figures like Chairil Anwar, Pramoedya Ananta Toer, and Ayu Utami.


Cuisine

Indonesian cuisine has many regional cuisines, often based upon indigenous culture and foreign influences such as Chinese, African, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents. Rice is the leading staple food and is served with side dishes of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chilli), coconut milk, fish, and chicken are fundamental ingredients. Some popular dishes, such as ''nasi goreng'', ''gado-gado'', ''mie ayam'', ''bakso'', ''Satay, sate'', and ''Soto (food), soto'', are ubiquitous and considered national dishes. The Ministry of Tourism, however, chose ''tumpeng'' as the official national dish in 2014, describing it as binding the diversity of various culinary traditions. Other popular dishes include ''rendang'', one of the many Padang cuisine, Minangkabau cuisines, along with ''dendeng'' and ''gulai''. Another fermented food is ''oncom'', which is similar in some ways to ''tempeh'' but uses a variety of bases (not only soy), created by different fungi, and is prevalent in West Java.


Sports

Badminton and association football, football are the most popular sports in Indonesia. Indonesia is among the few countries that have won the Thomas Cup, Thomas and Uber Cup, the world team championship of men's and women's badminton. Along with Olympic weightlifting, weightlifting, badminton is the sport that contributes the most to Indonesia at the Olympics, Indonesia's Olympic medal tally. Liga 1 (Indonesia), Liga 1 is the country's premier football league. On the international stage, Indonesia national football team, Indonesia was the first Asian team to participate in the FIFA World Cup in 1938 FIFA World Cup, 1938 as the Dutch East Indies. On a regional level, Indonesia won a bronze medal at the 1958 Asian Games as well as three gold medals at the 1987 Southeast Asian Games, 1987, 1991 Southeast Asian Games, 1991, and 2023 Southeast Asian Games (SEA Games). Indonesia's first appearance at the AFC Asian Cup was in 1996 AFC Asian Cup, 1996. Other popular sports include boxing and basketball, which were part of the first National Sports Week (Indonesia), National Games (''Pekan Olahraga Nasional'', PON) in 1948. ''Sepak takraw'' and ''karapan sapi'' (bull racing) in Madura Island, Madura are some examples of Indonesia's traditional sports. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as ''caci'' in Flores and ''pasola'' in Sumba. ''Pencak silat'' is an Indonesian martial art that, in 2018, became one of the sporting events in the Asian Games, with Indonesia appearing as one of the leading competitors. In Southeast Asia, Indonesia topped the SEA Games medal table ten times since 1977, most recently in 2011 Southeast Asian Games, 2011.


See also

* List of Indonesia-related topics * Index of Indonesia-related articles * Outline of Indonesia


Notes


References


Citations


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Winters, Jeffrey A. "Oligarchy and democracy in Indonesia." in ''Beyond Oligarchy'' (Cornell UP, 2014) pp. 11–34
online
*


External links


Key Development Forecasts for Indonesia
from International Futures


Government


Government
– Official website of the Government of Indonesia
Presidency
– official website of the president of Indonesia
Vice President
– official website of the vice president of Indonesia
People's Consultative Assembly
– official website of People's Consultative Assembly of the Republic of Indobesia
Regional Representative Council
– official website of Indonesia Regional Representative Council
House of Representatives
– official website of Indonesia House of Representatives
Supreme Court
– official website of the Supreme Court of Indonesia
Constitutional Court
– official website of the Constitutional Court of Indonesia
Statistics
– official website of Central Agency of Statistics


History


"History"
– Indonesian history at Repositori Institusi


Tourism


Wonderful Indonesia
– Indonesia's official tourism portal


Maps

* * {{Coord, 5, S, 120, E, type:country_region:ID, display=title Indonesia, Indonesia Countries in Asia Member states of ASEAN Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation 1945 establishments in Indonesia Island countries 1945 establishments in Asia 1945 establishments in Southeast Asia Countries in Melanesia Developing 8 Countries member states G15 nations G20 members Former OPEC member states Maritime Southeast Asia Member states of the United Nations Republics Southeast Asian countries States and territories established in 1945 Countries and territories where Malay is an official language BRICS nations Tiger Cub Economies