
In the
religion of ancient Rome, a haruspex was a person trained to practise a form of
divination
Divination () is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic ritual or practice. Using various methods throughout history, diviners ascertain their interpretations of how a should proceed by reading signs, ...
called haruspicy, the inspection of the entrails of
sacrificed animals, especially the
liver
The liver is a major metabolic organ (anatomy), organ exclusively found in vertebrates, which performs many essential biological Function (biology), functions such as detoxification of the organism, and the Protein biosynthesis, synthesis of var ...
s of sacrificed
sheep
Sheep (: sheep) or domestic sheep (''Ovis aries'') are a domesticated, ruminant mammal typically kept as livestock. Although the term ''sheep'' can apply to other species in the genus '' Ovis'', in everyday usage it almost always refers to d ...
and
poultry
Poultry () are domesticated birds kept by humans for the purpose of harvesting animal products such as meat, Eggs as food, eggs or feathers. The practice of animal husbandry, raising poultry is known as poultry farming. These birds are most typ ...
.
Various ancient cultures of the Near East, such as the Babylonians, also read omens specifically from the liver, a practice also known by the Greek term hepatoscopy (also hepatomancy).
The Roman concept is directly derived from
Etruscan religion
Etruscan religion comprises a set of stories, beliefs, and religious practices of the Etruscan civilization, heavily influenced by the mythology of ancient Greece, and sharing similarities with concurrent Roman mythology and Religion in ancie ...
, as one of the three branches of the ''
disciplina Etrusca
Etruscan religion comprises a set of stories, beliefs, and religious practices of the Etruscan civilization, heavily influenced by the mythology of ancient Greece, and sharing similarities with concurrent Roman mythology and religion. As the ...
''.
Etymology
The Latin terms ''
haruspex
In the Ancient Roman religion, religion of ancient Rome, a haruspex was a person trained to practise a form of divination called haruspicy, the inspection of the entrails of Animal sacrifice, sacrificed animals, especially the livers of sacrifi ...
'' and ''haruspicina'' are from an archaic word, ''hīra'' = "entrails, intestines" (cognate with ''hernia'' = "protruding viscera" and ''hira'' = "empty gut"; PIE ''
*ǵʰer-'') and from the root ''
spec-'' = "to watch, observe". The Greek ἡπατοσκοπία ''hēpatoskōpia'' is from ''
hēpar'' = "liver" and ''
skop-'' = "to examine".
Ancient Near East

The Babylonians were famous for hepatoscopy. This practice is mentioned in the
Book of Ezekiel
The Book of Ezekiel is the third of the Nevi'im#Latter Prophets, Latter Prophets in the Hebrew Bible, Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) and one of the Major Prophets, major prophetic books in the Christian Bible, where it follows Book of Isaiah, Isaiah and ...
21:21:
One Babylonian clay model of a sheep's liver, dated between 1900 and 1600 BCE, is conserved in the
British Museum
The British Museum is a Museum, public museum dedicated to human history, art and culture located in the Bloomsbury area of London. Its permanent collection of eight million works is the largest in the world. It documents the story of human cu ...
.
The Assyro-Babylonian tradition was also adopted in
Hittite religion
Hittite mythology and Hittite religion were the religion, religious beliefs and practices of the Hittites, who created an empire centered in Anatolia from .
Most of the narratives embodying Hittite mythology are lost, and the elements that w ...
. At least thirty-six liver-models have been excavated at
Hattusa
Hattusa, also Hattuşa, Ḫattuša, Hattusas, or Hattusha, was the capital of the Hittites, Hittite Empire in the late Bronze Age during two distinct periods. Its ruins lie near modern Boğazkale, Turkey (originally Boğazköy) within the great ...
. Of these, the majority are inscribed in Akkadian, but a few examples also have inscriptions in the native
Hittite language
Hittite (, or ), also known as Nesite (Nešite/Neshite, Nessite), is an extinct Indo-European language that was spoken by the Hittites, a people of Bronze Age Anatolia who created an empire centred on Hattusa, as well as parts of the northern ...
, indicating the adoption of haruspicy as part of the native, vernacular cult.
Ancient Italy
Roman haruspicy was a form of communication with the gods. Rather than strictly predicting future events, this form of Roman divination allowed humans to discern the attitudes of the gods and react in a way that would maintain harmony between the human and divine worlds (
pax deorum
The vocabulary of ancient Roman religion was highly specialized. Its study affords important information about the religion, traditions and beliefs of the ancient Romans. This legacy is conspicuous in European cultural history in its influence on ...
).
[Johnston, Sarah Iles. "Divination: Greek and Roman Divination". In ''Encyclopedia of Religion'', 2nd ed., edited by Lindsay Jones, 2375–2378. Vol. 4. Detroit, Michigan: Macmillan Reference USA, 2005. Gale eBooks.] Before taking important actions, especially in battle, Romans conducted animal sacrifices to discover the will of the gods according to the information gathered through reading the animals' entrails.
The entrails (most importantly the liver, but also the lungs and heart) contained a large number of signs that indicated the gods' approval or disapproval. These signs could be interpreted according to the appearance of the organs, for example, if the liver was "smooth, shiny and full" or "rough and shrunken".
[Driediger-Murphy, Lindsay G, and Eidinow, Esther. ''Ancient Divination and Experience''. Oxford: Oxford University Press USA - OSO, 2019.] The Etruscans looked for the ''caput iocineris'', or "head of the liver". It was considered a bad omen if this part was missing from the animal's liver. The haruspex would then study the flat visceral side of the liver after examining the ''caput iocineris''.

Haruspicy in Ancient Italy originated with the Etruscans. Textual evidence for Etruscan divination comes from an Etruscan inscription: the priest Laris Pulenas' (250–200 BCE) epitaph mentions a book he wrote on haruspicy. A collection of sacred texts called the ''Etrusca disciplina'', written in Etruscan, were essentially guides on different forms of divination, including haruspicy and
augury
Augury was a Greco- Roman religious practice of observing the behavior of birds, to receive omens. When the individual, known as the augur, read these signs, it was referred to as "taking the auspices". "Auspices" () means "looking at birds". ...
.
[MacIntosh Turfa, Jean, and Tambe, Ashwini, eds. ''The Etruscan World''. London: Taylor & Francis Group, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central.] In addition, a number of archeological artifacts depict Etruscan haruspicy. These include a bronze mirror with an image of a haruspex dressed in Etruscan priest's clothing, holding a liver while a crowd gathers near him. Another significant artifact relating to haruspicy in Ancient Italy is the
Piacenza Liver. This bronze model of a sheep's liver was found by chance by a farmer in 1877. Names of gods are etched into the surface and organized into different sections.
Artifacts depicting haruspicy exist from the ancient Roman world as well, such as stone relief carvings located in
Trajan's Forum
Trajan's Forum (; ) was the last of the Imperial fora to be constructed in ancient Rome. The architect Apollodorus of Damascus oversaw its construction.
History
This forum was built on the order of the emperor Trajan with the spoils of war f ...
.
At the most influential time of haruspicy, the Roman senate decreed that 'a certain number of young Etruscans' should be instructed in it to provide haruspices for the state. These Etruscans were later appointed as Roman
augurs.
In later days when haruspicy became a neglected art,
Emperor Claudius
Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; ; 1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54), or Claudius, was a Roman emperor, ruling from AD 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Claudius was born to Drusus and Antonia Minor at Lugdu ...
, who ruled from AD 41-54 attempted to revive it. He directed the Senate to pass a decree to examine what parts of it should be ‘maintained or strengthened’.
Northeast Africa
In southwest Ethiopia and adjacent area of
South Sudan
South Sudan (), officially the Republic of South Sudan, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered on the north by Sudan; on the east by Ethiopia; on the south by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda and Kenya; and on the ...
, a number of ethnic communities have had the practice of reading animal entrails to divine the future. Some of the groups that have been documented as having this practice include
Suri,
Mursi ,
Topsa ,
Nyangatom,
Didinga,
Murle,
Me'en,
Turkana,
Konso
Karat is a town in south-western Ethiopia and the capital of the Konso Zone in the new South Ethiopia Regional State. Situated 20 km north of the Sagan River at an elevation of , it is also called Pakawle by some of the neighboring inhabita ...
,
Dime,
Karamojong,
Dodoth,
Kalenjin people
The History of the Kalenjin people, Kalenjin is a group of tribes indigenous to East Africa, residing mainly in what was formerly the Rift Valley Province in Kenya and the eastern slopes of Mount Elgon in Uganda. They number 6,358,113 individu ...
Haruspication has also been practiced in Kenya, such as the
Kamba
Kamba may refer to:
*Kamba African Rainforest Experiences, a collection of eco-luxury lodges in the Republic of Congo
*Kamba people of Kenya
*Bena-Kamba, a community in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
*Khampa, also spelled Kamba, Tibetan peop ...
and the
Kipsikis.
[Barton, Juxon. "Notes on the Kipsikis or Lumbwa Tribe of Kenya Colony." ''The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland'' 53 (1923): 42-78.]
See also
*
Anthropomancy
*
Augur
An augur was a priest and official in the ancient Rome, classical Roman world. His main role was the practice of augury, the interpretation of the will of the List of Roman deities, gods by studying events he observed within a predetermined s ...
*
Auspice
Augury was a Greco- Roman religious practice of observing the behavior of birds, to receive omens. When the individual, known as the augur, read these signs, it was referred to as "taking the auspices". "Auspices" () means "looking at birds". '' ...
Notes
References
Bibliography
*
Walter Burkert
Walter Burkert (; 2 February 1931 – 11 March 2015) was a German scholar of Greek mythology and cult.
A professor of classics at the University of Zurich, Switzerland, he taught in the UK and the US. He has influenced generations of student ...
, 1992. ''The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age'' (Thames and Hudson), pp 46–51.
* Derek Collins, "Mapping the Entrails: The Practice of Greek Hepatoscopy" ''American Journal of Philology'' 129
008 008, OO8, O08, or 0O8 may refer to:
* "008", a fictional 00 Agent
In Ian Fleming's James Bond novels and the derived films, the 00 Section of MI6 is considered the secret service's elite. A 00 (pronounced "Double O") is a field agent who ho ...
319-345
* Marie-Laurence Haack, ''Les haruspices dans le monde romain'' (Bordeaux : Ausonius, 2003).
*Hans Gustav Güterbock, 'Hittite liver models' in: ''Language, Literature and History (FS Reiner)'' (1987), 147–153, reprinted in Hoffner (ed.) ''Selected Writings'', Assyriological Studies no. 26 (1997
External links
* This source suggests that Greek and Roman haruspices used the entrails of human corpses; the victim should be "without spot or blemish".
Haruspices article in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities
Vatican Museums Online, Gregorian Etruscan Museum, Room III
*
{{Etruscans
Ancient Roman occupations
Etruscan religion
Middle Eastern mythology
Roman augurs
Divination