Qarmatian Invasion Of Iraq (927–928)
   HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

The Qarmatian invasion of Iraq was a large-scale raid by the
Qarmatians The Qarmatians (; ) were a militant Isma'ili Shia movement centred in Al-Ahsa in Eastern Arabia, where they established a religious state in 899 CE. Its members were part of a movement that adhered to a syncretic branch of Sevener Ismaili ...
of Bahrayn against the
Abbasid Caliphate The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire (; ) was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes ...
's metropolitan region of
Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...
, that began in autumn of 927 and continued until the summer of 928. The invasion was the culmination of a series of destructive raids against the
Hajj Hajj (; ; also spelled Hadj, Haj or Haji) is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims. Hajj is a mandatory religious duty for capable Muslims that must be carried out at least once in their lifetim ...
caravans, and the sack of Basra and
Kufa Kufa ( ), also spelled Kufah, is a city in Iraq, about south of Baghdad, and northeast of Najaf. It is located on the banks of the Euphrates, Euphrates River. The estimated population in 2003 was 110,000. Along with Samarra, Karbala, Kadhimiya ...
, during the previous years. Coming amidst a general political malaise in the Abbasid government, which appeared helpless to counter the Qarmatians, these attacks exacerbated the political tensions in
Baghdad Baghdad ( or ; , ) is the capital and List of largest cities of Iraq, largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the List of largest cities in the A ...
, leading to the downfall and execution of the
vizier A vizier (; ; ) is a high-ranking political advisor or Minister (government), minister in the Near East. The Abbasids, Abbasid caliphs gave the title ''wazir'' to a minister formerly called ''katib'' (secretary), who was at first merely a help ...
Ibn al-Furat Nāṣir al-Dīn Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Raḥīm b. ʿAlī al-Miṣrī al-Ḥanafī () (1334–1405 CE), better known as Ibn al-Furāt, was an Egyptian historian, best known for his universal history, generally known as ''Taʾrīkh al-duwal wa ...
. In October/November 927, the Qarmatian leader,
Abu Tahir al-Jannabi Abu Tahir Sulayman al-Jannabi (, Persian: ابوطاهر بهرام گناوه‌ای, romanized: ''Abū-Tāher Bahrām Ganāveh'ī'') was a Persian warlord and the ruler of the Qarmatian state in Bahrayn. He became the leader of the state i ...
, led a force of no more than 2,300 men to invade Iraq. In December, the Qarmatians captured Kufa and routed the much larger army of the semi-autonomous emir of Adharbayjan,
Yusuf ibn Abi'l-Saj Yusuf ibn Abi'l Saj (died, d. 928) was the Sajids, Sajid Emir of Azerbaijan (Iran), Azerbaijan from 901 until his death. He was the son of Abi'l-Saj Devdad. War with Armenians and Georgians Yusuf came to power in 901 by overthrowing his nephew, ...
, who was captured. The Qarmatians then began to advance north along the
Euphrates The Euphrates ( ; see #Etymology, below) is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of West Asia. Tigris–Euphrates river system, Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia (). Originati ...
towards Baghdad, where a widespread panic broke out. An army of over 40,000 men was assembled to meet the threat, but the Abbasid commanders,
Mu'nis al-Muzaffar Abū'l-Ḥasan Mu'nis al-Qushuri (; 845/6–933), also commonly known by the surnames al-Muẓaffar (; ) and al-Khadim (; 'the Eunuch'), was the commander-in-chief of the Abbasid army from 908 to his death in 933 CE, and virtual dictator and king ...
and Abu'l-Hayja al-Hamdani, preferred to avoid combat and instead obstruct the Qarmatian advance by destroying the bridges and canals near the Abbasid capital. The resulting flooding brought the Qarmatian advance to a halt at the outskirts of the city on 7 January 928. The Qarmatians then withdrew again across the Euphrates and marched up the river into
Upper Mesopotamia Upper Mesopotamia constitutes the Upland and lowland, uplands and great outwash plain of northwestern Iraq, northeastern Syria and southeastern Turkey, in the northern Middle East. Since the early Muslim conquests of the mid-7th century, the regio ...
, plundering the region and securing ransom from its cities. Unopposed, the Qarmatians withdrew to their homes in the summer of 928. Their presence had led to uprisings by sympathizers, the so-called Baqliyya, in the
Sawad Sawad was the name used in early Islamic times (7th–12th centuries) for southern Iraq. It means "black land" or "arable land" and refers to the stark contrast between the alluvial plain of Mesopotamia and the Arabian Desert. Under the Umayyad ...
of Kufa, but these were suppressed by the Abbasid authorities. The survivors of these uprisings joined the Qarmatians in their retreat to Bahrayn. In the aftermath of the invasion, the Qarmatians sacked
Mecca Mecca, officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, is the capital of Mecca Province in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia; it is the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow valley above ...
in January 930 and captured
Oman Oman, officially the Sultanate of Oman, is a country located on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula in West Asia and the Middle East. It shares land borders with Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. Oman’s coastline ...
in the same year, but internal troubles halted their advance. A young Persian who had been taken prisoner in Iraq,
Abu'l-Fadl al-Isfahani Abu'l-Fadl al-Isfahani, also known as the Isfahani Mahdi, was a young Persian man who in 931 CE was declared to be "God incarnate" by the Qarmatian leader of Bahrayn, Abu Tahir al-Jannabi. This new apocalyptic leader, however, caused great dis ...
, was recognized as the
Mahdi The Mahdi () is a figure in Islamic eschatology who is believed to appear at the Eschatology, End of Times to rid the world of evil and injustice. He is said to be a descendant of Muhammad in Islam, Muhammad, and will appear shortly before Jesu ...
by Abu Tahir, and power passed to him. His erratic behaviour, however, quickly made clear that he was not the
millennialist Millennialism () or chiliasm (from the Greek equivalent) is a belief which is held by some religious denominations. According to this belief, a Messianic Age will be established on Earth prior to the Last Judgment and the future permanent stat ...
figure expected by the Qarmatians, and he was murdered. The event demoralized the Qarmatians, who after that sought peaceful relations with the Abbasids. Nevertheless, the invasion of 927–928 severely deteriorated the financial and political situation in the Abbasid Caliphate, which descended into a vicious circle of military coups and internecine warfare among warlords, culminating in 946 with the takeover of Iraq by the
Buyid dynasty The Buyid dynasty or Buyid Empire was a Zaydi and later Twelver Shi'a dynasty of Daylamite origin. Founded by Imad al-Dawla, they mainly ruled over central and southern Iran and Iraq from 934 to 1062. Coupled with the rise of other Iranian dyn ...
.


Background


Origins of the Qarmatians of Bahrayn

In the 880s and 890s, the
Isma'ili Ismailism () is a branch of Shia Islam. The Isma'ili () get their name from their acceptance of Imam Isma'il ibn Jafar as the appointed spiritual successor (Imamate in Nizari doctrine, imām) to Ja'far al-Sadiq, wherein they differ from the ...
Shi'a Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib () as both his political successor ( caliph) and as the spiritual leader of the Muslim community ( imam). However, his right is understoo ...
missionary
Abu Sa'id al-Jannabi Abu Sa'id Hasan ibn Bahram al-Jannabi (; 845/855–913/914) was a Persian Shia and the founder of the Qarmatian state in Bahrayn (an area comprising the eastern parts of modern Saudi Arabia as well as the Persian Gulf). By 899, his followers ...
had established a strong following among the
Bedouin The Bedouin, Beduin, or Bedu ( ; , singular ) are pastorally nomadic Arab tribes who have historically inhabited the desert regions in the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, the Levant, and Mesopotamia (Iraq). The Bedouin originated in the Sy ...
tribes of Bahrayn. In 899, the Isma'ili movement split between a branch that followed the leadership of the future
Fatimid caliph This is a list of an Arab dynasty, the Shi'ite caliphs of the Fatimid dynasty (909–1171). The Shi'ite caliphs were also regarded at the same time as the imams of the Isma'ili branch of Shi'a Islam Shia Islam is the second-largest br ...
, Abdallah al-Mahdi, and those who rejected his claims to the
imamate The term imamate or ''imamah'' (, ''imāmah'') means "leadership" and refers to the office of an ''imam'' or a Muslim theocratic state ruled by an ''imam''. Theology *Imamate in Shia doctrine, the doctrine of the leadership of the Muslim commu ...
, known as the "
Qarmatians The Qarmatians (; ) were a militant Isma'ili Shia movement centred in Al-Ahsa in Eastern Arabia, where they established a religious state in 899 CE. Its members were part of a movement that adhered to a syncretic branch of Sevener Ismaili ...
". Whether out of genuine conviction or political expediency, Abu Sa'id sided with the latter faction. Allied with the local
Bedouin The Bedouin, Beduin, or Bedu ( ; , singular ) are pastorally nomadic Arab tribes who have historically inhabited the desert regions in the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, the Levant, and Mesopotamia (Iraq). The Bedouin originated in the Sy ...
tribes of the
Banu Kilab The Banu Kilab () was an Arab tribe in the western Najd (central Arabian Peninsula, Arabia) where they controlled the horse-breeding pastures of Dariyya from the mid-6th century until at least the mid-9th century. The tribe was divided into ten br ...
and
Banu Uqayl Banu Uqayl () are an ancient Arab tribe that played an important role in the history of Eastern Arabia and Iraq. They belonged to the Banu Ka'b branch of the large Banu 'Amir confederation. The Banu 'Amir confederation of tribes had their origi ...
, as well as with the
Persian Gulf The Persian Gulf, sometimes called the Arabian Gulf, is a Mediterranean seas, mediterranean sea in West Asia. The body of water is an extension of the Arabian Sea and the larger Indian Ocean located between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula.Un ...
merchants, Abu Sa'id was able to capture the region's capital, and in 900 cemented its independence by defeating an
Abbasid The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire (; ) was the third caliphate to succeed the prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 C ...
army sent to recover control of Bahrayn. Under Abu Sa'id's rule, the Qarmatians of Bahrayn remained uninvolved in the unsuccessful Isma'ili uprisings of the 900s against the
Sunni Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any successor and that his closest companion Abu Bakr () rightfully succeeded him as the caliph of the Mu ...
Abbasid Caliphate in
Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
and
Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...
, or in the establishment of the Fatimid Caliphate in
Ifriqiya Ifriqiya ( '), also known as al-Maghrib al-Adna (), was a medieval historical region comprising today's Tunisia, eastern Algeria, and Tripolitania (roughly western Libya). It included all of what had previously been the Byzantine province of ...
. Apart from a raid against
Basra Basra () is a port city in Iraq, southern Iraq. It is the capital of the eponymous Basra Governorate, as well as the List of largest cities of Iraq, third largest city in Iraq overall, behind Baghdad and Mosul. Located near the Iran–Iraq bor ...
in 912, they also retained peace with the Abbasids, secured through donations of money and weapons sent by the Abbasid
vizier A vizier (; ; ) is a high-ranking political advisor or Minister (government), minister in the Near East. The Abbasids, Abbasid caliphs gave the title ''wazir'' to a minister formerly called ''katib'' (secretary), who was at first merely a help ...
, Ali ibn Isa ibn al-Jarrah. Abu Sa'id was assassinated in 913/4, and succeeded, at least nominally, by all of his sons collectively. The oldest, Abu'l-Qasim Sa'id al-Jannabi, was at first the pre-eminent, but his reign was brief; he was replaced by the more ambitious and warlike youngest son,
Abu Tahir al-Jannabi Abu Tahir Sulayman al-Jannabi (, Persian: ابوطاهر بهرام گناوه‌ای, romanized: ''Abū-Tāher Bahrām Ganāveh'ī'') was a Persian warlord and the ruler of the Qarmatian state in Bahrayn. He became the leader of the state i ...
, in 923.


Qarmatian sack of Basra

Under the leadership of the barely 16-year-old Abu Tahir, the Qarmatians began raids against the Abbasid Caliphate with a surprise attack on Basra on the night of 11 August 923. The city was thoroughly plundered over the next 17 days, until the Qarmatians left, unmolested, and with an enormous train of booty and slaves. The start of hostilities was likely connected to the deposition of Ali ibn Isa from the vizierate, and his replacement by his more hawkish rival,
Ibn al-Furat Nāṣir al-Dīn Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Raḥīm b. ʿAlī al-Miṣrī al-Ḥanafī () (1334–1405 CE), better known as Ibn al-Furāt, was an Egyptian historian, best known for his universal history, generally known as ''Taʾrīkh al-duwal wa ...
, who favoured military action. Upon news of the attack, Ibn al-Furat sent troops to Basra, but they arrived after the Qarmatians had left. This would be a common theme in the Abbasid military response to the Qarmatian raids: the Qarmatian raiding parties were small, but highly mobile, ensuring that any Abbasid military response would come late. At the same time, the Qarmatian base in Bahrayn was safe from Abbasid retaliation. Despite the alarming sack of Basra, Ibn al-Furat was more concerned with securing his own position than making military preparations; indeed, to remove his most powerful rival from Baghdad, he sent the commander-in-chief,
Mu'nis al-Muzaffar Abū'l-Ḥasan Mu'nis al-Qushuri (; 845/6–933), also commonly known by the surnames al-Muẓaffar (; ) and al-Khadim (; 'the Eunuch'), was the commander-in-chief of the Abbasid army from 908 to his death in 933 CE, and virtual dictator and king ...
, with his army to
Raqqa Raqqa (, also , Kurdish language, Kurdish: ''Reqa'') is a city in Syria on the North bank of the Euphrates River, about east of Aleppo. It is located east of the Tabqa Dam, Syria's largest dam. The Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine city and b ...
, in virtual exile. At the same time, Ibn al-Furat's son, al-Muhassin, engaged in a campaign of torture against officials, in order to extract money from them.


Raids on the Hajj caravans and the fall of Ibn al-Furat

In March 924, the Qarmatians
destroyed Destroyed may refer to: * ''Destroyed'' (Sloppy Seconds album), a 1989 album by Sloppy Seconds * ''Destroyed'' (Moby album), a 2011 album by Moby See also * Destruction (disambiguation) * Ruined (disambiguation) Ruins are the remains of man-m ...
the
Hajj Hajj (; ; also spelled Hadj, Haj or Haji) is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims. Hajj is a mandatory religious duty for capable Muslims that must be carried out at least once in their lifetim ...
caravan making its way back from
Mecca Mecca, officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, is the capital of Mecca Province in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia; it is the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow valley above ...
to
Baghdad Baghdad ( or ; , ) is the capital and List of largest cities of Iraq, largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the List of largest cities in the A ...
, taking many notables of the Abbasid court captive. As pro-Shi'a sympathizers flocked to Bahrayn, the Abbasid government, divided by factional rivalries and incapacitated by lack of funds, failed to respond effectively to the Qarmatian threat. The destruction of the Hajj caravan was a testament to the incompetence of the Abbasid government to ensure one of its most fundamental duties. Riots broke out in the streets of Baghdad against Ibn al-Furat, who now lost any support he might have had. Mu'nis was recalled to Baghdad in June, and the military commanders insisted on the deposition of Ibn al-Furat. On 16 July the vizier was deposed and executed, along with his son al-Muhassin. The event marked the final ascendance of the military over the civilian bureaucracy, with dire consequences for the future. The Hajj caravan of the next year was attacked on its way to Mecca, and despite an escort of 6,000 men had to turn back to
Kufa Kufa ( ), also spelled Kufah, is a city in Iraq, about south of Baghdad, and northeast of Najaf. It is located on the banks of the Euphrates, Euphrates River. The estimated population in 2003 was 110,000. Along with Samarra, Karbala, Kadhimiya ...
pursued by the Qarmatians, taking heavy losses. The Qarmatians demanded the surrender of Basra and of
Khuzistan Khuzestan province () is one of the 31 Provinces of Iran. Located in the southwest of the country, the province borders Iraq and the Persian Gulf, covering an area of . Its capital is the city of Ahvaz. Since 2014, it has been part of Iran's ...
, and when they were refused, they entered Kufa and pillaged it for seven days. Even the city's iron gates were dismantled and taken back to Bahrayn. In the next Hajj season, in January 926, a strong military escort ensured the safety of the pilgrims, but the authorities nevertheless paid a hefty sum to the Qarmatians to be allowed through. During the following Hajj, the caravan had to be called off entirely as the Abbasid government lacked the funds to provide the escort, and panic spread in Mecca as its inhabitants deserted the city in anticipation of a Qarmatian attack that never came.


Abbasid preparations and the recall of Ali ibn Isa

In the meantime, the Abbasid government made frantic efforts to gather money for recruiting more soldiers, but the two short-lived viziers who followed Ibn al-Furat, Abdallah al-Khaqani and
Ahmad al-Khasibi Ahmad () is an Arabic male given name common in most parts of the Muslim world. Other English spellings of the name include Ahmed. It is also used as a surname. Etymology The word derives from the root ( ḥ-m-d), from the Arabic (), from ...
, were unable to shore up the state's finances. Matters were made worse by persistent rumours that elements in the Abbasid government were secretly in league with the Qarmatians, a charge that was liberally levelled at political opponents at the time. In desperation, in 926 the vizier al-Khasibi called upon the semi-autonomous, hereditary Sajid emir of Adharbayjan and
Armenia Armenia, officially the Republic of Armenia, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of West Asia. It is a part of the Caucasus region and is bordered by Turkey to the west, Georgia (country), Georgia to the north and Azerbaijan to ...
,
Yusuf ibn Abi'l-Saj Yusuf ibn Abi'l Saj (died, d. 928) was the Sajids, Sajid Emir of Azerbaijan (Iran), Azerbaijan from 901 until his death. He was the son of Abi'l-Saj Devdad. War with Armenians and Georgians Yusuf came to power in 901 by overthrowing his nephew, ...
, with his troops, to confront the Qarmatian menace. As the treasury was empty, the revenues of the eastern provinces still under Abbasid control (the
Jibal Jibāl (), also al-Jabal (), was the name given by the Arabs to a region and province located in western Iran, under the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates. Its name means "the Mountains", being the plural of ''jabal'' ("mountain, hill"), highlight ...
and northwestern Persia), along with Ibn Abi'l-Saj's own domains, were allocated for the upkeep of his army. As the historian Hugh Kennedy remarks, this was a "foolish idea": the Sajid troops, mostly highland troops, were unaccustomed to fighting in the desert plains of Iraq, while Ibn Abi'l-Saj's loyalty to Baghdad was questionable and contingent on being paid the promised sums. Finally, in April 927, Ali ibn Isa was recalled to the vizierate at the insistence of Mu'nis, to lead a sort of '
national unity government A national unity government, government of national unity (GNU), or national union government is a broad coalition government consisting of all parties (or all major parties) in the legislature, usually formed during a time of war or other na ...
' to deal with the crisis. Ali ibn Isa favoured an alternative solution, namely recruiting troops from the
Bedouin The Bedouin, Beduin, or Bedu ( ; , singular ) are pastorally nomadic Arab tribes who have historically inhabited the desert regions in the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, the Levant, and Mesopotamia (Iraq). The Bedouin originated in the Sy ...
tribes of
Asad Asad (), sometimes written as Assad, is an Arabic male given name literally meaning "lion". It is used in nicknames such as ''Asad Allāh'', one of the by-names for Ali ibn Abi Talib. People Among prominent people named "Asad" or "Assad" a ...
and Shayban, which would cost the treasury far less and provide better-suited troops. At the same time the vizier tried to persuade Ibn Abi'l-Saj to return to his home province, but the latter refused, just as he refused to lead his men into the field before the promised money arrived. In the meantime the Sajid troops made their base at
Wasit Wasit (, ) was an early Islamic city in Iraq. It was founded in the 8th century by the Umayyad viceroy of Iraq, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, to serve as the region's seat and as the garrison of the Syrian troops who enforced Umayyad rule there. It was ...
, from where they oppressed the local population.


Invasion


Fall of Kufa and defeat of the Sajid army

All of Ali ibn Isa's plans would take time to implement, however, and that was running out. In October/November 927, the Qarmatians under Abu Tahir launched their invasion of Iraq, moving to attack Kufa. Mu'nis was recalled from a campaign against the
Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived History of the Roman Empire, the events that caused the ...
, large stores of weapons and supplies set up at Kufa, and Ibn Abi'l-Saj ordered to make for the city. The fast-moving Qarmatians reached Kufa first, however, capturing the stored supplies. The invading Qarmatian force was small—medieval sources put it at between 1,500 and 2,300 men—so Ibn Abi'l-Saj decided to attack them. Despite enjoying considerable numerical superiority, in a battle near Kufa on 7 December 927, the Sajid troops were defeated and Ibn Abi'l-Saj himself captured. Hidden Isma'ili sympathizers (the Baqliyya) in the
Sawad Sawad was the name used in early Islamic times (7th–12th centuries) for southern Iraq. It means "black land" or "arable land" and refers to the stark contrast between the alluvial plain of Mesopotamia and the Arabian Desert. Under the Umayyad ...
of Kufa revealed themselves and rose in revolt, from the Bedouin tribes of Rifa'a, Dhuhl, and Abs, to the nephew of the early Isma'ili missionary Abu Muhammad Abdan, who seized control of Kufa and declared the end of the Abbasid dynasty and the imminent arrival of the Islamic messiah, the
Mahdi The Mahdi () is a figure in Islamic eschatology who is believed to appear at the Eschatology, End of Times to rid the world of evil and injustice. He is said to be a descendant of Muhammad in Islam, Muhammad, and will appear shortly before Jesu ...
. The rebels were soon dispersed by Abbasid troops from Wasit under Harun ibn Gharib, but their remnants joined Abu Tahir's forces.


Qarmatian march on Baghdad and the Abbasid response

After their victory at Kufa, the Qarmatians began their advance north, targeting Baghdad itself. As the Qarmatians advanced, panic broke out in Baghdad, where many feared that the city would fall and the Abbasid Caliphate perish, as rumours spread that Abu Tahir had already divided the caliphal palaces among his followers. The Abbasid government mobilized even its palace troops, which rarely left the capital, to meet the threat. Ali ibn Isa was obliged to turn to the queen mother,
Shaghab Shaghab () (died 933) was the mother of the eighteenth Abbasid caliph al-Muqtadir (), and wielded a considerable influence over state affairs during the reign of her son. She was commonly referred to only as Umm al-Muqtadir (mother of al-Muqtadir) ...
, for money to enlist the boatmen of Baghdad into government service. In the meantime, the Qarmatians reached Anbar on 14 December, finding the bridge over the
Euphrates The Euphrates ( ; see #Etymology, below) is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of West Asia. Tigris–Euphrates river system, Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia (). Originati ...
destroyed. Some men in boats managed to cross the river and repair it, allowing the rest of the army to cross, but leaving their baggage train behind on the west bank. During the night, the Abbasids managed to burn down the bridge again, stranding the Qarmatians east of the river, but the latter nevertheless continued their march on the Abbasid capital. The couple of thousand of Qarmatians faced a much larger army, under the command of Mu'nis and the
Hamdanid The Hamdanid dynasty () was a Shia Muslim Arab dynasty that ruled modern day Northern Mesopotamia and Syria (890–1004). They descended from the ancient Banu Taghlib tribe of Mesopotamia and Arabia. History Origin The Hamdanids hailed ...
chieftain Abu'l-Hayja. The army lists reportedly contained the names of 42,000 men, to which the sizeable personal retinues of Mu'nis and the other senior commanders, and the Bedouin commanded by Abu'l-Hayja, must be added. However, the Abbasid troops were of low quality and represented the result of an emergency mass mobilization rather than a trained military force. According to Kennedy, the actual number of effective, regular troops available to the Abbasid government at the time was probably well below 10,000 men, and that only in emergencies. As a result, instead of confronting the Qarmatians in the field, Mu'nis resorted to breaching the canals, flooding the fields, and tearing down the bridges leading to Baghdad to halt the Qarmatian advance. Finding their way blocked, on 7 January 928, at the tell of Aqarquf, within sight of the towers of Baghdad, the Qarmatian advance was halted. While the Qarmatian army was still east of the Euphrates, the Abbasids planned to attack their camp on the west bank, and free Ibn Abi'l-Saj. For this purpose, Mu'nis detailed his chamberlain Yalqbaq with 6,000 men, most of whom appear to have been Sajid troops. Abu Tahir suspected their intentions and managed to cross the river at night, to alert his camp and prepare its defence. The Abbasid attack failed, and Ibn Abi'l-Saj was executed in the aftermath.


Qarmatian raid into Upper Mesopotamia

The Qarmatian army managed to cross the Euphrates, but despite being thwarted in their attack on Baghdad, Abu Tahir did not give up. His men followed the river to the north into
Upper Mesopotamia Upper Mesopotamia constitutes the Upland and lowland, uplands and great outwash plain of northwestern Iraq, northeastern Syria and southeastern Turkey, in the northern Middle East. Since the early Muslim conquests of the mid-7th century, the regio ...
, plundering as they went. The town of Hit resisted their attacks, but they sacked al-Daliya,
al-Rahba Al-Rahba (/ALA-LC: ''al-Raḥba'', sometimes spelled ''Raḥabah''), also known as Qal'at al-Rahba, which translates as the "Citadel of al-Rahba", is a medieval Arab fortress on the west bank of the Euphrates River, adjacent to the city of May ...
, and reached
Raqqa Raqqa (, also , Kurdish language, Kurdish: ''Reqa'') is a city in Syria on the North bank of the Euphrates River, about east of Aleppo. It is located east of the Tabqa Dam, Syria's largest dam. The Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine city and b ...
, which they also assaulted unsuccessfully. Smaller Qarmatian bands ranged as far as
Ras al-Ayn Ras al-Ayn (, , ), also spelled Ras al-Ain, is a city in al-Hasakah Governorate in northeastern Syria, on the Syria–Turkey border. One of the oldest cities in Upper Mesopotamia, the area of Ras al-Ayn has been inhabited since at least the Neol ...
and
Sinjar Sinjar (; , ) is a town in the Sinjar District of the Nineveh Governorate in northern Iraq. It is located about five kilometers south of the Sinjar Mountains. Its population in 2013 was estimated at 88,023, and is predominantly Yazidi. History ...
, extracting ransoms from the cities and plundering the countryside. As Kennedy remarks, the Abbasid government's policy of concentrating its troops in the capital meant that cities across the Caliphate were left to their own devices, forced to hastily improvise defences and raise militias to fend off the attackers. Finally, in the summer of 928, the Qarmatians retreated to their homes in Bahrayn, with Abu Tahir leaving behind a poem in which he promised to return.


Aftermath


Sack of Mecca and the end of Qarmatian expansion

Abu Tahir made good on his threat by attacking Mecca itself in January 930, during the Hajj. They massacred the Hajj pilgrims, desecrated the
Zamzam Well The Zamzam Well ( ) is a Water well, well located within the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. It is located east of the Kaaba, the holiest place in Islam. In the Islamic teachings, the well is a miraculously generated source of water, ...
by throwing in corpses and plundered the
Kaaba The Kaaba (), also spelled Kaba, Kabah or Kabah, sometimes referred to as al-Kaba al-Musharrafa (), is a stone building at the center of Islam's most important mosque and Holiest sites in Islam, holiest site, the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Sa ...
, taking its relics, including the
Black Stone The Black Stone () is a rock set into the eastern corner of the Kaaba, the ancient building in the center of the Masjid al-Haram, Grand Mosque in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. It is revered by Muslims as an Islamic relic which, according to Muslim tradi ...
, with them to their capital al-Ahsa. This event may have been connected to internal developments in the Qarmatian state: on his return from Iraq, Abu Tahir recognized one of the captives brought with them, a young Persian named
Abu'l-Fadl al-Isfahani Abu'l-Fadl al-Isfahani, also known as the Isfahani Mahdi, was a young Persian man who in 931 CE was declared to be "God incarnate" by the Qarmatian leader of Bahrayn, Abu Tahir al-Jannabi. This new apocalyptic leader, however, caused great dis ...
, taken at Qasr Ibn Hubayra, as the awaited Mahdi. He was proclaimed as such publicly in 931, with full power being ceded into his hands by the Qarmatian leaders. As the Mahdi was expected to annul the existing religious law of Muhammad and announce a new and final revelation, the unprecedented desecration of Mecca was likely tied with the millennialist expectations associated with their new messiah among the Qarmatians. In the event, the bizarre and autocratic behaviour of the supposed Mahdi, who was worshipped as a living god and had several leading Qarmatians executed, aroused resistance, and he was murdered soon after. Abu Tahir was able to retain power over Bahrayn, and the Qarmatian leadership denounced the entire episode as an error and reverted to its previous adherence to Islamic law. Nevertheless, the affair of the false Mahdi tarnished the prestige of Abu Tahir and shattered the morale of the Qarmatians, many of whom abandoned Bahrayn to seek service in the armies of various regional warlords. At the same time, the event evidently checked Abu Tahir's ambitions: after conquering
Oman Oman, officially the Sultanate of Oman, is a country located on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula in West Asia and the Middle East. It shares land borders with Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. Oman’s coastline ...
in 930, he seemed poised to repeat his invasion of Iraq, but after a sack of Kufa in 931, he returned with his men back to Bahrayn to deal with the false Mahdi. Over the following years, the Qarmatians of Bahrayn entered into negotiations with the Abbasid government, resulting in the conclusion of a peace treaty in 939, and eventually the return of the Black Stone to Mecca in 951. These events marked, in the words of Hugh Kennedy, "the assimilation of the Qarmati state into the Muslim political order".


Decline and collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate

In the Abbasid Caliphate, the disastrous Qarmatian invasion of Iraq, which left the once fertile Sawad devastated, exacerbated the political infighting in Baghdad. Once the immediate danger had passed, the court secured Ali ibn Isa's dismissal in May 928, and the intrigues and power struggles resumed, this time between Mu'nis and Harub ibn Gharib. The disputes resulted in the brief deposition of Caliph
al-Muqtadir Abū’l-Faḍl Jaʿfar ibn Al-Mu'tadid, Aḥmad ibn Al-Muwaffaq, Ṭalḥa ibn Al-Mutawakkil, Jaʿfar ibn al-Mu'tasim, Muḥammad ibn Harun al-Rashid, Hārūn Al-Muqtadir bi'Llāh () (895 – 31 October 932 AD), better known by his regnal name a ...
in February 929, but even though the caliph was restored within days, the following years were a period of coups and counter-coups that culminated in the overthrow and death of al-Muqtadir by Mu'nis in 932. Rather than stabilizing the situation, this merely highlighted the role that the military could play in court politics. In the following decades, a number of military strongmen and regional warlords fought one another for control of Baghdad and the now virtually powerless caliphs and the revenues of Iraq, until the final takeover of Baghdad by the
Buyid dynasty The Buyid dynasty or Buyid Empire was a Zaydi and later Twelver Shi'a dynasty of Daylamite origin. Founded by Imad al-Dawla, they mainly ruled over central and southern Iran and Iraq from 934 to 1062. Coupled with the rise of other Iranian dyn ...
in 945.


References


Sources

* * * * * * {{Qarmatians of Bahrayn 927 928 920s conflicts Battles involving the Qarmatians Wars involving the Abbasid Caliphate 10th century in the Abbasid Caliphate 10th century in Iraq Invasions of Iraq History of Ismailism Rebellions against the Abbasid Caliphate