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The punk subculture includes a diverse and widely known array of
ideologies An ideology is a set of beliefs or philosophies attributed to a person or group of persons, especially those held for reasons that are not purely epistemic, in which "practical elements are as prominent as theoretical ones." Formerly applied prim ...
,
fashion Fashion is a form of self-expression and autonomy at a particular period and place and in a specific context, of clothing, footwear, lifestyle, accessories, makeup, hairstyle, and body posture. The term implies a look defined by the fashion in ...
, and other forms of expression,
visual art The visual arts are art forms such as painting, drawing, printmaking, sculpture, ceramics, photography, video, filmmaking, design, crafts and architecture. Many artistic disciplines such as performing arts, conceptual art, and textile arts ...
, dance,
literature Literature is any collection of written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially prose fiction, drama, and poetry. In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to include ...
, and film. Largely characterised by anti-establishment views, the promotion of individual freedom, and the
DIY ethic "Do it yourself" ("DIY") is the method of building, modifying, or repairing things by oneself without the direct aid of professionals or certified experts. Academic research has described DIY as behaviors where "individuals use raw and sem ...
s, the culture originated from punk rock. The punk ethos is primarily made up of beliefs such as non-conformity, anti-authoritarianism,
anti-corporatism Anti-corporate activism refers to the idea of activism that is directed against the private sector, and specifically against larger corporations. It stems from the idea that the activities and impacts of big business are detrimental to the pub ...
, a do-it-yourself ethic,
anti-consumerist Anti-consumerism is a sociopolitical ideology that is opposed to consumerism, the continual buying and consuming of material possessions. Anti-consumerism is concerned with the private actions of business corporations in pursuit of financial and ...
, anti-
corporate greed Criticism of capitalism ranges from expressing disagreement with the principles of capitalism in its entirety to expressing disagreement with particular outcomes of capitalism. Criticism of capitalism comes from various political and philoso ...
, direct action, and not "
selling out "Selling out", or "sold out" in the past tense, is a common expression for the compromising of a person's integrity, morality, authenticity, or principles by forgoing the long-term benefits of the collective or group in exchange for personal ga ...
". There is a wide range of punk fashion, including T-shirts, leather jackets,
Dr. Martens Dr. Martens, also commonly known as Doc Martens, Docs or DMs, is a German-founded British footwear and clothing brand, headquartered in Wollaston in the Wellingborough district of Northamptonshire, England. Although famous for its footwear, Dr ...
boots, hairstyles such as brightly coloured hair and spiked mohawks, cosmetics, tattoos, jewellery, and
body modification Body modification (or body alteration) is the deliberate altering of the human anatomy or human physical appearance. In its broadest definition it includes skin tattooing, socially acceptable decoration (''e.g.'', common ear piercing in many so ...
. Women in the hardcore scene typically wore masculine clothing. Punk aesthetics determine the type of art punks enjoy, which typically has
underground Underground most commonly refers to: * Subterranea (geography), the regions beneath the surface of the Earth Underground may also refer to: Places * The Underground (Boston), a music club in the Allston neighborhood of Boston * The Underground ...
,
minimalist In visual arts, music and other media, minimalism is an art movement that began in post– World War II in Western art, most strongly with American visual arts in the 1960s and early 1970s. Prominent artists associated with minimalism include Do ...
,
iconoclastic Iconoclasm (from Ancient Greek, Greek: grc, wikt:εἰκών, εἰκών, lit=figure, icon, translit=eikṓn, label=none + grc, wikt:κλάω, κλάω, lit=to break, translit=kláō, label=none)From grc, wikt:εἰκών, εἰκών + wi ...
, and satirical sensibilities. Punk has generated a considerable amount of poetry and
prose Prose is a form of written or spoken language that follows the natural flow of speech, uses a language's ordinary grammatical structures, or follows the conventions of formal academic writing. It differs from most traditional poetry, where the ...
, and has its own
underground press The terms underground press or clandestine press refer to periodicals and publications that are produced without official approval, illegally or against the wishes of a dominant (governmental, religious, or institutional) group. In specific rec ...
in the form of
zines A zine ( ; short for ''magazine'' or ''fanzine'') is a small-circulation self-published work of original or appropriated texts and images, usually reproduced via a copy machine. Zines are the product of either a single person or of a very smal ...
. Many punk-themed films and videos have been made.


History

The punk subculture emerged in the United Kingdom in the mid-1970s. Exactly which region originated punk has long been a matter of controversy within the movement. Some suggest the name "
punk Punk or punks may refer to: Genres, subculture, and related aspects * Punk rock, a music genre originating in the 1970s associated with various subgenres * Punk subculture, a subculture associated with punk rock, or aspects of the subculture s ...
" was borrowed from prison slang. Early punk had an abundance of antecedents and influences, and
Jon Savage Jon Savage (born Jonathan Malcolm Sage; 2 September 1953 in Paddington, London) is an English writer, broadcaster and music journalist, best known for his history of the Sex Pistols and punk music, ''England's Dreaming'', published in 199 ...
describes the subculture as a "
bricolage In the arts, ''bricolage'' ( French for "DIY" or "do-it-yourself projects") is the construction or creation of a work from a diverse range of things that happen to be available, or a work constructed using mixed media. The term ''bricolage'' ...
" of almost every previous youth culture in the Western world since World War II, "stuck together with safety pins".Savage, Jon. ''Teenage: The Creation of Youth Culture''. P. xvi. 2007. Viking. England. Various musical,
philosophical Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. Some ...
,
political Politics (from , ) is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that studies ...
, literary, and
artistic movements An art movement is a tendency or style in art with a specific common philosophy or goal, followed by a group of artists during a specific period of time, (usually a few months, years or decades) or, at least, with the heyday of the movement defi ...
influenced the subculture. In the late 1970s, the subculture began to diversify, which led to the proliferation of factions such as new wave,
post-punk Post-punk (originally called new musick) is a broad genre of punk music that emerged in the late 1970s as musicians departed from punk's traditional elements and raw simplicity, instead adopting a variety of avant-garde sensibilities and non-roc ...
,
2 Tone Two-tone, two tone, or 2 tone, etc., may refer to: Audio and sound * Two-tone analysis, in nonlinear system measurement * Two-tone attention signal * Two-tone chime, such as the "ding dong" sound of a doorbell * Two-tone sequential paging, sel ...
,
pop punk Pop punk (or punk pop) is a rock music genre that combines elements of punk rock with power pop or pop. It is defined for its emphasis on classic pop songcraft, as well as adolescent and anti- suburbia themes, and is distinguished from other p ...
,
hardcore punk Hardcore punk (also known as simply hardcore) is a punk rock music genre and subculture that originated in the late 1970s. It is generally faster, harder, and more aggressive than other forms of punk rock. Its roots can be traced to earlier punk ...
, no wave, street punk, and
Oi! Oi! is a subgenre of punk rock that originated in the United Kingdom in the late 1970s. The music and its associated subculture had the goal of bringing together punks, skinheads, and other disaffected working-class youth. The movement was ...
. Hardcore punk, street punk, and Oi! sought to do away with the frivolities introduced in the later years of the original punk movement.
AllMusic AllMusic (previously known as All Music Guide and AMG) is an American online music database. It catalogs more than three million album entries and 30 million tracks, as well as information on musicians and bands. Initiated in 1991, the databas ...
,
underground_music Underground music is music with practices perceived as outside, or somehow opposed to, mainstream popular music culture. Underground music is intimately tied to popular music culture as a whole, so there are important tensions within underground ...
_scenes_such_as_
alternative_rock Alternative rock, or alt-rock, is a category of rock music that emerged from the independent music underground of the 1970s and became widely popular in the 1990s. "Alternative" refers to the genre's distinction from Popular culture, mainstre ...
,_
indie_music Independent music (also commonly known as indie music or simply indie) is music that is produced independently from commercial record labels or their subsidiaries, a process that may include an autonomous, do-it-yourself approach to recording a ...
,_
crossover_thrash Crossover thrash (often abbreviated to crossover) is a fusion genre of thrash metal and hardcore punk. The genre lies on a continuum between heavy metal and hardcore punk. Other genres on the same continuum, such as metalcore and grindcore, ...
,_and_the_extreme_subgenres_of_ heavy_metal_(mainly_
thrash_metal Thrash metal (or simply thrash) is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music characterized by its overall aggression and often fast tempo.Kahn-Harris, Keith, ''Extreme Metal: Music and Culture on the Edge'', pp. 2–3, 9. Oxford: Berg, 2007, . ...
,_
death_metal Death metal is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music. It typically employs heavily distorted and low-tuned guitars, played with techniques such as palm muting and tremolo picking; deep growling vocals; aggressive, powerful drumming, feat ...
,_
speed_metal Speed metal is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music that originated in the late 1970s from new wave of British heavy metal (NWOBHM) roots.K. Kahn-Harris, ''Extreme Metal: Music and Culture on the Edge'' (Berg Publishers, 2007), , p. 31. It ...
,_and_the_
NWOBHM The new wave of British heavy metal (commonly abbreviated as NWOBHM) was a nationwide musical movement that started in England in the mid-1970s and achieved international attention by the early 1980s. Journalist Geoff Barton coined the term ...
)._A_new_movement_in_the_United_States_became_visible_in_the_early_and_mid-1990s_that_sought_to_revive_the_punk_movement,_doing_away_with_some_of_the_trappings_of_hardcore.


_Music

The_punk_subculture_is_centered_on_a_loud,_aggressive_genre_of_rock_music_called_punk_rock,_usually_played_by_bands_consisting_of_a_vocalist,_one_or_two_electric_guitarists,_an_electric_bassist,_and_a_drummer._In_some_bands,_the_musicians_contribute_backup_vocals,_which_typically_consist_of_shouted_slogans,_choruses,_or_ football-style_chants. While_most_punk_rock_uses_distorted_guitars_and_noisy_drumming_sounds_derived_from_1960s_
garage_rock Garage rock (sometimes called garage punk or 60s punk) is a raw and energetic style of rock and roll that flourished in the mid-1960s, most notably in the United States and Canada, and has experienced a series of subsequent revivals. The sty ...
_and_1970s_ pub_rock,_some_punk_bands_incorporate_elements_from_other_subgenres,_such_as_ surf_rock,_
rockabilly Rockabilly is one of the earliest styles of rock and roll music. It dates back to the early 1950s in the United States, especially the South. As a genre it blends the sound of Western musical styles such as country with that of rhythm and blu ...
,_or_
reggae Reggae () is a music genre that originated in Jamaica in the late 1960s. The term also denotes the modern popular music of Jamaica and its diaspora. A 1968 single by Toots and the Maytals, " Do the Reggay" was the first popular song to use ...
._Most_punk_rock_songs_are_short,_have_simple_and_somewhat_basic_arrangements_using_relatively_few_chords,_and_typically_have_lyrics_that_express_punk_ideologies_and_values,_although_some_punk_lyrics_are_about_lighter_topics_such_as_partying_or_ romantic_relationships. Different_punk_subcultures_often_distinguish_themselves_by_having_a_unique_style_of_punk_rock,_although_not_every_style_of_punk_rock_has_its_own_associated_subculture. The_earliest_form_of_music_to_be_called_"punk_rock"_was_1960s_
garage_rock Garage rock (sometimes called garage punk or 60s punk) is a raw and energetic style of rock and roll that flourished in the mid-1960s, most notably in the United States and Canada, and has experienced a series of subsequent revivals. The sty ...
,_and_the_term_was_applied_to_the_genre_retroactively_by_influential_rock_critics_in_the_early_1970s._In_the_late_1960s,_music_now_referred_to_as_
protopunk Proto-punk (or protopunk) is rock music played mostly by garage bands from the 1960s to mid-1970s that foreshadowed the punk rock movement. The phrase is a retrospective label; the musicians involved were generally not originally associated wi ...
_originated_as_a_garage_rock_revival_in_the_northeastern_United_States. "Protopunk"from_Allmusic.com_The_first_distinct_music_scene_to_claim_the_''punk''_label_appeared_in_New_York_City_between_1974_and_1976.Harrington,_Joe_S._''Sonic_Cool:_The_Life_&_Death_of_Rock_'N'_Roll''._pp._324–30._2002._Hal-Leonard._USA._Around_the_same_time_or_soon_afterward,_a_punk_scene_developed_in_London.Harrington,_Joe_S._''Sonic_Cool:_The_Life_&_Death_of_Rock_'N'_Roll''._pp._344–50._2002._Hal-Leonard._USA._Los_Angeles_subsequently_became_home_to_the_third_major_punk_scene._These_three_cities_formed_the_backbone_of_the_burgeoning_movement,_but_there_were_also_other_punk_scenes_in_cities_such_as_
Brisbane Brisbane ( ) is the capital and most populous city of the states and territories of Australia, Australian state of Queensland, and the list of cities in Australia by population, third-most populous city in Australia and Oceania, with a populati ...
,_
Melbourne Melbourne ( ; Boonwurrung/Woiwurrung: ''Narrm'' or ''Naarm'') is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in both Australia and Oceania. Its name generally refers to a met ...
,_and_
Sydney Sydney ( ) is the capital city of the state of New South Wales, and the most populous city in both Australia and Oceania. Located on Australia's east coast, the metropolis surrounds Sydney Harbour and extends about towards the Blue Mountain ...
_in_Australia,_
Toronto Toronto ( ; or ) is the capital city of the Canadian province of Ontario. With a recorded population of 2,794,356 in 2021, it is the most populous city in Canada and the fourth most populous city in North America. The city is the ancho ...
,_
Vancouver Vancouver ( ) is a major city in western Canada, located in the Lower Mainland region of British Columbia. As the List of cities in British Columbia, most populous city in the province, the 2021 Canadian census recorded 662,248 people in the ...
,_and_
Montreal Montreal ( ; officially Montréal, ) is the List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population, second-most populous city in Canada and List of towns in Quebec, most populous city in the Provinces and territories of Canada, Canadian ...
_in_Canada,_and_
Boston Boston (), officially the City of Boston, is the state capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, as well as the cultural and financial center of the New England region of the United States. It is the 24th- mo ...
_and_San_Francisco_in_the_United_States. The_punk_subculture_advocates_a_do-it-yourself_(DIY)_ethic._During_the_subculture's_infancy_members_were_almost_all_from_a_lower_economic_class,_and_had_become_tired_of_the_affluence_that_was_associated_with_popular_rock_music_at_the_time._Punks_would_publish_their_own_music_or_sign_with_small_independent_labels,_in_hopes_to_combat_what_they_saw_as_a_money-hungry_music_industry._The_DIY_ethic_is_still_popular_with_punks. The_New_York_City_punk_rock_scene_arose_from_a_subcultural_underground_promoted_by_artists,_reporters,_musicians,_and_a_wide_variety_of_non-mainstream_enthusiasts._
The_Velvet_Underground The Velvet Underground was an American rock band formed in New York City in 1964. The original line-up consisted of singer/guitarist Lou Reed, multi-instrumentalist John Cale, guitarist Sterling Morrison, and drummer Angus MacLise. MacLise ...
's_harsh_and_experimental_yet_often_melodic_sound_in_the_mid_to_late-1960s,_much_of_it_relating_to_ transgressive_media_work_by_visual_artist_
Andy_Warhol Andy Warhol (; born Andrew Warhola Jr.; August 6, 1928 – February 22, 1987) was an American visual artist, film director, and producer who was a leading figure in the Art movement, visual art movement known as pop art. His works explore th ...
,_is_credited_for_influencing_1970s_bands_such_as_the_ New_York_Dolls,_
The_Stooges The Stooges, originally billed as the Psychedelic Stooges, also known as Iggy and the Stooges, was an American rock band formed in Ann Arbor, Michigan, in 1967 by singer Iggy Pop, guitarist Ron Asheton, drummer Scott Asheton, and bassist Da ...
,_and_the_ Ramones._Early_New_York_City_punk_bands_were_often_short-lived,_in_part_due_to_widespread_use_of_
recreational_drugs Recreation is an activity of leisure, leisure being discretionary time. The "need to do something for recreation" is an essential element of human biology and psychology. Recreational activities are often done for enjoyment, amusement, or pleasur ...
,_promiscuous_sex,_and_sometimes_violent_power_struggles,_but_the_relative_popularity_of_the_music_led_to_the_evolution_of_punk_into_a_movement_and_lifestyle.


_Ideologies

Punk_political_ideologies_are_mostly_concerned_with_individual_freedom_and_
anti-establishment An anti-establishment view or belief is one which stands in opposition to the conventional social, political, and economic principles of a society. The term was first used in the modern sense in 1958, by the British magazine ''New Statesman'' ...
_views._Common_punk_viewpoints_include_
individual_liberty Civil liberties are guarantees and freedoms that governments commit not to abridge, either by constitution, legislation, or judicial interpretation, without due process. Though the scope of the term differs between countries, civil liberties may ...
,__anti-authoritarianism,_a_DIY_ethic_ "Do_it_yourself"_("DIY")_is_the_method_of_building,__modifying,_or_repairing_things_by_oneself_without_the_direct_aid_of_professionals_or_certified_experts._Academic_research_has_described_DIY_as_behaviors_where_"individuals_use__raw_and_sem_...
,_non-conformity,_anti-
corporatism Corporatism is a collectivist political ideology which advocates the organization of society by corporate groups, such as agricultural, labour, military, business, scientific, or guild associations, on the basis of their common interests. The ...
,_anti-government,__direct_action,_and_not_"selling_out_ "Selling_out",_or_"sold_out"_in_the_past_tense,_is_a_common_expression_for_the_compromising_of_a_person's_integrity,_morality,__authenticity,_or_principles_by_forgoing_the_long-term_benefits_of_the_collective_or_group_in_exchange_for_personal_ga_...
". Some_groups_and_individuals_that_try_to_self-identify_as_being_a_part_of_the_punk_subculture_hold_pro-Nazi_or_Fascist_views,_however,_these_Nazi/Fascist_groups_are_rejected_by_almost_all_of_the_punk_subculture._The_belief_that_such_views_are_opposed_to_the_original_ethos_of_the_punk_subculture,_and_its_history,_has_led_to_internal_conflicts_and_an_active_push_against_such_views_being_considered_part_of_punk_subculture_at_all._Two_examples_of_this_are_an_incident_during_the_2016_American_Music_Awards,_where_the_band_ Green_Day_chanted_anti-racist_and_anti-fascist_messages,_and_an_incident_at_a_show_by_the_ Dropkick_Murphys,_when_bassist_and_singer_Ken_Casey_tackled_an_individual_for_giving_a_Nazi-style_salute_and_later_stated_that_Nazis_are_not_welcome_at_a_Dropkick_Murphys_show._Band_member_Tim_Brennan_later_reaffirmed_this_sentiment._The_song_"
Nazi_Punks_Fuck_Off "Nazi Punks Fuck Off" is the fifth single by Dead Kennedys. It was released in 1981 on Alternative Tentacles with "Moral Majority" as the B-side. Both are from the '' In God We Trust, Inc.'' EP, although the EP version is a different recordi ...
"_by_hardcore_punk_band_
Dead_Kennedys Dead Kennedys are an American punk rock band that formed in San Francisco, California, in 1978. The band was one of the defining punk bands during its initial eight-year run. Dead Kennedys' lyrics were usually political in nature, satirizing p ...
_is_a_standout_example. Early_British_punks_expressed_
nihilistic Nihilism (; ) is a philosophy, or family of views within philosophy, that rejects generally accepted or fundamental aspects of human existence, such as objective truth, knowledge, morality, values, or meaning of life, meaning. The term was pop ...
_and_anarchist_views_with_the_slogan_''No_Future'',_which_came_from_the_ Sex_Pistols_song_"
God_Save_the_Queen "God Save the King" is the national and/or royal anthem of the United Kingdom, most of the Commonwealth realms, their territories, and the British Crown Dependencies. The author of the tune is unknown and it may originate in plainchant, bu ...
"._In_the_United_States,_punks_had_a_different_approach_to_nihilism_which_was_less_anarchistic_than_the_British_punks._Punk_nihilism_was_expressed_in_the_use_of_"harder,_more_self-destructive,_consciousness-obliterating_substances_like_heroin,_or_methamphetamine". The_issue_of_authenticity_is_important_in_the_punk_subculture—the_pejorative_term_"
poseur A poseur is someone who poses for effect, or behaves affectedly, who affects a particular attitude, character or manner to impress others, or who pretends to belong to a particular group.
"_is_applied_to_those_who_associate_with_punk_and_adopt_its_stylistic_attributes_but_are_deemed_not_to_share_or_understand_the_underlying_values_or_philosophy.


_Fashion

Early_punk_fashion_adapted_everyday_objects_for_aesthetic_effect:_ripped_clothing_was_held_together_by_safety_pins_or_wrapped_with_tape;_ordinary_clothing_was_customised_by_embellishing_it_with_marker_or_adorning_it_with_paint;_a_black_
bin_liner A bin bag, rubbish bag (British English), garbage bag, bin liner, trash bag (American English) or refuse sack is a disposable bag used to contain solid waste. Such bags are useful to line the insides of waste containers to prevent the insides ...
_became_a_dress,_shirt_or_skirt;_safety_pins_and_razor_blades_were_used_as_jewellery._Also_popular_have_been_leather,_rubber,_and_ PVC_clothing_that_is_often_associated_with_transgressive_ sexuality,_like_
BDSM BDSM is a variety of often erotic practices or roleplaying involving bondage, discipline, dominance and submission, sadomasochism, and other related interpersonal dynamics. Given the wide range of practices, some of which may be engaged ...
_and_ S&M._A_designer_associated_with_early_UK_punk_fashion_was_
Vivienne_Westwood Dame Vivienne Isabel Westwood (née Swire; born 8 April 1941) is an English fashion designer and businesswoman, largely responsible for bringing modern punk and new wave fashions into the mainstream. Westwood came to public notice when she m ...
,_who_made_clothes_for_ Malcolm_McLaren's_boutique_in_the_
King's_Road King's Road or Kings Road (or sometimes the King's Road, especially when it was the king's private road until 1830, or as a colloquialism by middle/upper class London residents), is a major street stretching through Chelsea and Fulham, both ...
,_which_became_famous_as_"
SEX Sex is the trait that determines whether a sexually reproducing animal or plant produces male or female gametes. Male plants and animals produce smaller mobile gametes (spermatozoa, sperm, pollen), while females produce larger ones ( ova, of ...
". Many_punks_wear_tight_"drainpipe"_jeans,_plaid/tartan_trousers,_kilts_or_skirts,_T-shirts,_leather_jackets_(often_decorated_with_painted_band_logos,_pins_and_buttons,_and_metal_studs_or_spikes),_and_footwear_such_as_high-cut_ Chuck_Taylors,_
trainers Sneakers (also called trainers, athletic shoes, tennis shoes, gym shoes, kicks, sport shoes, flats, running shoes, or runners) are shoes primarily designed for sports or other forms of physical exercise, but which are now also widely used fo ...
,_
skate_shoes Skate or Skates may refer to: Fish *Skate (fish), several genera of fish belonging to the family Rajidae * Pygmy skates, several genera of fish belonging to the family Gurgesiellidae * Smooth skates or leg skates, several genera of fish belongin ...
,_
brothel_creeper Brothel creepers, sometimes shortened to creepers, are a style of shoe that has thick crepe soles, often in combination with suede uppers. This style of footwear became fashionable in the years following World War II, seeing resurgences of popul ...
s,_Dr._Martens_boots,_and_army_boots._Early_punks_occasionally_wore_clothes_displaying_a_
swastika The swastika (卐 or 卍) is an ancient religious and cultural symbol, predominantly in various Eurasian, as well as some African and American cultures, now also widely recognized for its appropriation by the Nazi Party and by neo-Nazis. It ...
_for_shock_value,_but_most_contemporary_punks_are_staunchly_anti-racist_and_are_more_likely_to_wear_a_crossed-out_swastika_symbol_than_a_pro-Nazi_symbol._Some_punks_cut_their_hair_into_ mohawks_or_other_dramatic_shapes,_style_it_to_stand_in_spikes,_and_colour_it_with_vibrant,_unnatural_hues. Some_punks_are_''anti-fashion'',_arguing_that_punk_should_be_defined_by_music_or_ideology._This_is_most_common_in_the_post-1980s_US_hardcore_punk_ Hardcore_punk_(also_known_as_simply_hardcore)_is_a_punk_rock_music_genre_and_subculture_that_originated_in_the_late_1970s._It_is_generally_faster,_harder,_and_more_aggressive_than_other_forms_of_punk_rock.__Its_roots_can_be_traced_to_earlier_punk_...
_scene,_where_members_of_the_subculture_often_dressed_in_plain_T-shirts_and_jeans,_rather_than_the_more_elaborate_outfits_and_spiked,_dyed_hair_of_their_British_counterparts._Many_groups_adopt_a_look_based_on_street_clothes_and_working-class_outfits._Hardcore_punk_fans_adopted_a_''dressed-down''_style_of_T-shirts,_jeans,_combat_boots_or_trainers,_and_
crewcut A crew cut is a type of haircut in which the upright hair on the top of the head is cut relatively short, graduated in length from the longest hair that forms a short pomp ( pompadour) at the front hairline to the shortest at the back of the crow ...
s._Women_in_the_hardcore_scene_typically_wore_army_trousers,_band_T-shirts,_and_hooded_jumpers. The_style_of_the_1980s_hardcore_scene_contrasted_with_the_more_provocative_fashion_styles_of_late_1970s_punk_rockers_(elaborate_ hairdos,_torn_clothes,_patches,_safety_pins,_studs,_spikes,_etc.)._ Circle_Jerks_frontman_
Keith_Morris Keith Morris (born September 18, 1955) is an American singer and songwriter known for his role as frontman of the hardcore punk bands Black Flag, Circle Jerks, and Off!. Born and raised in Hermosa Beach, California, he formed Black Flag at the ...
_described_early_hardcore_fashion_as_"the...punk_scene_was_basically_based_on_English_fashion._But_we_had_nothing_to_do_with_that._ Black_Flag_and_the_Circle_Jerks_were_so_far_from_that._We_looked_like_the_kid_who_worked_at_the_ gas_station_or_
submarine A submarine (or sub) is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability. The term is also sometimes used historically or colloquially to refer to remotely op ...
_shop."_Henry_Rollins_echoes_Morris'_point,_stating_that_for_him_getting_dressed_up_meant_putting_on_a_black_shirt_and_some_dark_pants;_Rollins_viewed_an_interest_in_fashion_as_being_a_distraction._Jimmy_Gestapo_from_ Murphy's_Law_describes_his_own_transition_from_dressing_in_a_punk_style_(spiked_hair_and_a_
bondage_belt A body belt is any waist belt which has D-rings or other attachment points. The belts can be used as medical restraints in institutions for bed and wheelchair restraints, and for safety in activities such as abseiling or construction work. When ...
)_to_adopting_a_hardcore_style_(i.e._boots_and_a_shaved_head)_as_being_based_on_a_need_for_more_functional_clothing._A_punk_scholar_states_that_"hardcore_kids_do_not_look_like_punks",_since_hardcore_scene_members_wore_basic_clothing_and_short_haircuts,_in_contrast_to_the_"embellished_leather_jackets_and_pants"_worn_in_the_punk_scene. In_contrast_to_Morris'_and_Rollins'_views,_another_punk_scholar_claims_that_the_standard_hardcore_punk_clothing_and_styles_included_torn_jeans,_leather_jackets,_spiked_armbands_and_dog_collars,_mohawk_hairstyles,_and_DIY_ornamentation_of_clothes_with_studs,_painted_band_names,_political_statements,_and_patches._Yet_another_punk_scholar_describes_the_look_that_was_common_in_the_San_Francisco_hardcore_scene_as_consisting_of_biker-style_leather_jackets,_chains,_studded_wristbands,_pierced_noses_and_multiple_piercings,_painted_or_tattooed_statements_(e.g._an_anarchy_symbol),_and_hairstyles_ranging_from_military-style_haircuts_dyed_black_or_blonde_to_mohawks_and_shaved_heads. The_
Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art The Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York City, colloquially "the Met", is the largest art museum in the Americas. Its permanent collection contains over two million works, divided among 17 curatorial departments. The main building at 1000 ...
_in_2013_hosted_a_comprehensive_exhibit,_''PUNK:_Chaos_to_Couture'',_that_examined_the_techniques_of_hardware,_distress,_and_re-purposing_in_punk_fashion.


_Gender_and_gender_expression

In_the_United_Kingdom,_the_advent_of_
punk Punk or punks may refer to: Genres, subculture, and related aspects * Punk rock, a music genre originating in the 1970s associated with various subgenres * Punk subculture, a subculture associated with punk rock, or aspects of the subculture s ...
_in_the_late_1970s_with_its_"anyone_can_do_it"_ethos_led_to_women_making_significant_contributions._In_contrast_to_the_rock_music_and_ heavy_metal_scenes_of_the_1970s,_which_were_dominated_by_men,_the_anarchic,_counter-cultural_mindset_of_the_punk_scene_in_mid-_and_late_1970s_encouraged_women_to_participate._"That_was_the_beauty_of_the_punk_thing,"_ Chrissie_Hynde_later_said._" exualdiscrimination_didn't_exist_in_that_scene."_This_participation_played_a_role_in_the_historical_development_of_punk_music,_especially_in_the_U.S._and_U.K._at_that_time,_and_continues_to_influence_and_enable_future_generations. Rock_historian_Helen_Reddington_states_that_the_popular_image_of_young_punk_women_musicians_as_focused_on_the_fashion_aspects_of_the_scene_(fishnet_stockings,_spiky_blond_hair,_etc.)_was_stereotypical._She_states_that_many,_if_not_most_women_punks_were_more_interested_in_the_ideology_and_socio-political_implications,_rather_than_the_fashion._Music_historian_Caroline_Coon_contends_that_before_punk,_women_in_rock_music_were_virtually_invisible;_in_contrast,_in_punk,_she_argues_" _would_be_possible_to_write_the_whole_history_of_punk_music_without_mentioning_any_male_bands_at_all_–_and_I_think_a_lot_of_ eoplewould_find_that_very_surprising."_
Johnny_Rotten John Joseph Lydon (; born 31 January 1956), also known by his former stage name Johnny Rotten, is an English singer and songwriter. He was the lead singer of the late-1970s punk band the Sex Pistols, which lasted from 1975 until 1978, and aga ...
_wrote_that_'During_the_Pistols_era,_women_were_out_there_playing_with_the_men,_taking_us_on_in_equal_terms_..._It_wasn't_combative,_but_compatible.'_Women_were_involved_in_bands_such_as_
The_Runaways The Runaways were an all-female American rock band who recorded and performed from 1975 to 1979. The band released four studio albums and one live album during its run. Among their best-known songs are " Cherry Bomb", "Hollywood", "Queens of ...
,_
The_Slits The Slits were a punk and post-punk band based in London, formed there in 1976 by members of the groups the Flowers of Romance and the Castrators. The group's early line-up consisted of Ari Up (Ariane Forster) and Palmolive (a.k.a. Paloma R ...
,_
The_Raincoats The Raincoats are a British experimental post-punk band. Ana da Silva (vocals, guitar) and Gina Birch (vocals, bass) formed the group in 1977 while they were students at Hornsey College of Art in London. Signed to the label Rough Trade, the ...
,_
Mo-dettes Mo-dettes were an English all-female post-punk band, formed in 1979 by guitarist Kate Korris, an original member of The Slits and brief member of The Raincoats, and bassist Jane Crockford, former member of Bank of Dresden. Ramona Carlier (vocal ...
,_
Dolly_Mixture Dolly mixture is a British confection, consisting of a variety of multi-coloured fondant shapes, such as cubes and cylinders with subtle flavourings, and sugar-coated jellies. The origin of the name is uncertain. It has been passed down throu ...
,_and_ The_Innocents. Others_take_issue_with_the_notion_of_equal_recognition,_such_as_guitarist_
Viv_Albertine Viviane Katrina Louise Albertine (born 1 December 1954) is an Australian-born British musician, singer, songwriter and writer. She is best known as the guitarist for the punk band the Slits from 1977 until 1982, with whom she recorded two studio ...
,_who_stated_that_"the_A&R_men,_the_bouncers,_the_sound_mixers,_no_one_took_us_seriously._So,_no,_we_got_no_respect_anywhere_we_went._People_just_didn't_want_us_around."_The_anti-establishment_stance_of_punk_opened_the_space_for_women_who_were_treated_like_outsiders_in_a_male-dominated_industry._ Sonic_Youth's_
Kim_Gordon Kim Althea Gordon (born April 28, 1953) is an American musician, singer and songwriter, best known as the bassist, guitarist, and vocalist of alternative rock band Sonic Youth. Born in Rochester, New York, she was raised in Los Angeles, Califor ...
_states,_"I_think_women_are_natural_anarchists,_because_you're_always_operating_in_a_male_framework."


_Body_and_appearance

For_some_punks,_the_body_was_a_symbol_of_opposition,_a_political_statement_expressing_disgust_of_all_that_was_"normal"_and_socially_accepted._The_idea_was_to_make_others_outside_of_the_subculture_question_their_own_views,_which_made_gender_presentation_and_gender_identity_a_popular_factor_to_be_played_with._In_some_ways,_punk_helped_to_tear_apart_the_normalised_view_of_gender_as_a_dichotomy._There_was_a_notable_amount_of_cross-dressing_in_the_punk_scene;_it_was_not_unusual_to_see_men_wearing_ripped-up_skirts,_fishnet_tights,_and_excessive_makeup,_or_to_see_women_with_shaved_heads_wearing_oversized_plaid_shirts_and_jean_jackets_and_heavy_combat_boots._Punk_created_a_new_cultural_space_for_androgyny_and_all_kinds_of_gender_expression. In_trying_to_reject_societal_norms,_punk_embraced_one_societal_norm_by_deciding_that_strength_and_anger_was_best_expressed_through_masculinity,_defining_masculine_as_the_"default",_where_gender_did_not_exist_or_had_no_meaning._However,_the_main_reasoning_behind_this_argument_equates_femininity_with_popular_conceptions_of_beauty._Everything_that_was_normally_supposed_to_be_hidden_was_brought_to_the_front,_both_literally_and_figuratively._This_could_mean_anything_from_wearing_bras_and_underwear_on_top_of_clothing_to_wearing_nothing_but_a_bra_and_underwear._Although_that_act_can_seem_sexualised,_to_punks_it_was_just_a_way_of_self-expression._Punk_seemed_to_allow_people_to_sexualize_themselves_and_still_be_taken_seriously._ The_nature_of_punk_allowed_many_to_create_a_non-gender-conforming_style._Punks_could_be_free_to_use_femininity_or_masculinity_to_make_what_they_were_doing_even_more_shocking_to_their_audience._It_became_popular_for_some_punks_to_accentuate_societal_norms._At_one_concert,_
Donita_Sparks Donita Sparks (born April 8, 1963) is an American singer, guitarist, and songwriter most notable for being the co-founder of the band L7. Sparks also initiated, performed, and released original material with her solo project, the band Donita S ...
,_lead_singer_of_the_band_ L7,_pulled_out_her_tampon_and_threw_it_into_the_audience.


_Riot_grrrl

Riot_grrrl_is_an_
underground Underground most commonly refers to: * Subterranea (geography), the regions beneath the surface of the Earth Underground may also refer to: Places * The Underground (Boston), a music club in the Allston neighborhood of Boston * The Underground ...
_ feminist_hardcore_punk_ Hardcore_punk_(also_known_as_simply_hardcore)_is_a_punk_rock_music_genre_and_subculture_that_originated_in_the_late_1970s._It_is_generally_faster,_harder,_and_more_aggressive_than_other_forms_of_punk_rock.__Its_roots_can_be_traced_to_earlier_punk_...
_movement_that_originated_in_the_early_1990s_in_Washington,_D.C.,_and_the_
Pacific_Northwest The Pacific Northwest (sometimes Cascadia, or simply abbreviated as PNW) is a geographic region in western North America bounded by its coastal waters of the Pacific Ocean to the west and, loosely, by the Rocky Mountains to the east. Tho ...
,_especially_
Olympia,_Washington Olympia is the capital of the U.S. state of Washington and the county seat and largest city of Thurston County. It is southwest of the state's most populous city, Seattle, and is a cultural center of the southern Puget Sound region. Europea ...
._It_is_often_associated_with_
third-wave_feminism Third-wave feminism is an iteration of the feminist movement that began in the early 1990s, prominent in the decades prior to the fourth wave. Grounded in the civil-rights advances of the second wave, Gen X and early Gen Y generations third-w ...
,_which_is_sometimes_seen_as_its_starting_point._It_has_also_been_described_as_a_musical_genre_that_came_out_of_indie_rock,_with_the_punk_scene_serving_as_an_inspiration_for_a_musical_movement_in_which_women_could_express_themselves_in_the_same_way_men_had_been_doing_for_the_past_several_years.


_Visual_art

Punk_aesthetics_determine_the_type_of_art_punks_enjoy,_usually_with_underground_ Underground_most_commonly_refers_to: *__Subterranea_(geography),_the_regions_beneath_the_surface_of_the_Earth Underground_may_also_refer_to: _Places *__The_Underground_(Boston),_a_music_club_in_the_Allston_neighborhood_of_Boston *__The_Underground_...
,_ minimalistic,_iconoclastic_ Iconoclasm_(from_Ancient_Greek,_Greek:__grc,_wikt:εἰκών,_εἰκών,_lit=figure,_icon,_translit=eikṓn,_label=none_+__grc,_wikt:κλάω,_κλάω,_lit=to_break,_translit=kláō,_label=none)From__grc,_wikt:εἰκών,_εἰκών_+_wi_...
,_and__satirical_sensibilities._Punk_artwork_graces_
album_cover An album cover (also referred to as album art) is the front packaging art of a commercially released studio album or other audio recordings. The term can refer to either the printed paperboard covers typically used to package sets of and 78-r ...
s,_ flyers_for_concerts,_and_
punk_zine A punk zine (or punkzine) is a zine related to the punk subculture and hardcore punk music genre. Often primitively or casually produced, they feature punk literature, such as social commentary, punk poetry, news, gossip, music reviews and arti ...
s._Usually_straightforward_with_clear_messages,_punk_art_is_often_concerned_with_political_issues_such_as_
social_injustice Social justice is justice in terms of the distribution of wealth, opportunities, and privileges within a society. In Western and Asian cultures, the concept of social justice has often referred to the process of ensuring that individuals f ...
_and_economic_disparity._The_use_of_images_of_suffering_to_shock_and_create_feelings_of_empathy_in_the_viewer_is_common._Alternatively,_punk_artwork_may_contain_images_of_selfishness,_stupidity,_or_apathy_to_provoke_contempt_in_the_viewer. Much_of_the_earlier_artwork_was_black_and_white,_because_it_was_distributed_in_
zines A zine ( ; short for ''magazine'' or ''fanzine'') is a small-circulation self-published work of original or appropriated texts and images, usually reproduced via a copy machine. Zines are the product of either a single person or of a very smal ...
_and_reproduced_by_photocopying_at_work,_school,_or_at_copy_shops._Punk_art_also_uses_the_ mass_production_aesthetic_of_
Andy_Warhol Andy Warhol (; born Andrew Warhola Jr.; August 6, 1928 – February 22, 1987) was an American visual artist, film director, and producer who was a leading figure in the Art movement, visual art movement known as pop art. His works explore th ...
's_Factory_studio._Punk_played_a_hand_in_the_revival_of_ stencil_art,_spearheaded_by_
Crass Crass were an English art collective and punk rock band formed in Epping, Essex in 1977, who promoted anarchism as a political ideology, a lifestylism, way of life, and a resistance movement. Crass popularised the anarcho-punk movement of the ...
._The_
Situationists The Situationist International (SI) was an international organization of social revolutionaries made up of avant-garde artists, intellectuals, and political theorists. It was prominent in Europe from its formation in 1957 to its dissolution ...
_also_influenced_the_look_of_punk_art,_particularly_that_of_the_ Sex_Pistols_created_by_
Jamie_Reid Jamie Reid (born 16 January 1947 in London, United Kingdom) is an English artist and anarchist. Career His work, featuring letters cut from newspaper headlines in the style of a ransom note, came close to defining the image of punk rock, p ...
._Punk_art_often_uses_ collage,_exemplified_by_the_art_of_Jamie_Reid,_Crass,_The_Clash,_
Dead_Kennedys Dead Kennedys are an American punk rock band that formed in San Francisco, California, in 1978. The band was one of the defining punk bands during its initial eight-year run. Dead Kennedys' lyrics were usually political in nature, satirizing p ...
,_and_
Winston_Smith Winston Smith may refer to: People * Winston Smith (artist) (born 1952), American artist * Winston Smith (athlete) (born 1982), Olympic track and field athlete * Winston Boogie Smith (born ), American man killed by law enforcement in 2021 * Winst ...
._
John_Holmstrom John Holmstrom (born 1954) is an American underground cartoonist and writer. He is best known for illustrating the covers of the Ramones albums '' Rocket to Russia'' and '' Road to Ruin'', as well as his characters Bosko and Joe (published in S ...
_was_a_punk_ cartoonist_who_created_work_for_the_ Ramones_and_''
Punk Punk or punks may refer to: Genres, subculture, and related aspects * Punk rock, a music genre originating in the 1970s associated with various subgenres * Punk subculture, a subculture associated with punk rock, or aspects of the subculture s ...
''.


_Dance

Two_dance_styles_associated_with_punk_are_ pogo_dancing_and_
moshing Moshing (also known as slam dancing or simply slamming) is an extreme style of dancing in which participants push or slam into each other, typically performed to "aggressive" live music such as heavy metal and punk rock. Moshing usually happen ...
._The_pogo_is_a_dance_in_which_the_dancers_jump_up_and_down,_while_either_remaining_on_the_spot_or_moving_around;_the_dance_takes_its_name_from_its_resemblance_to_the_use_of_a_pogo_stick,_especially_in_a_common_version_of_the_dance,_where_an_individual_keeps_their_torso_stiff,_their_arms_rigid,_and_their_legs_close_together._Pogo_dancing_is_closely_associated_with_punk_rock_and_is_a_precursor_to_moshing._Moshing_or_slamdancing_is_a_style_of_dance_where_participants_push_or_slam_into_each_other,_typically_during_a_live_music_show._It_is_usually_associated_with_"aggressive"_music_genres,_such_as_hardcore_punk_and_
thrash_metal Thrash metal (or simply thrash) is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music characterized by its overall aggression and often fast tempo.Kahn-Harris, Keith, ''Extreme Metal: Music and Culture on the Edge'', pp. 2–3, 9. Oxford: Berg, 2007, . ...
._ Stage_diving_and_
crowd_surfing Crowd surfing is the process in which a person is passed overhead from person to person (often during a concert), transferring the person from one part of the venue to another. The "crowd surfer" is passed above everyone's heads, with everyone's ...
_were_originally_associated_with_
protopunk Proto-punk (or protopunk) is rock music played mostly by garage bands from the 1960s to mid-1970s that foreshadowed the punk rock movement. The phrase is a retrospective label; the musicians involved were generally not originally associated wi ...
_bands_such_as_The_Stooges,_and_have_appeared_at_punk,_metal,_and_rock_concerts._
Ska_punk Ska punk (also spelled ska-punk) is a fusion genre that mixes ska music and punk rock music together. (sometimes spelled skacore) is a subgenre of ska punk that mixes ska with hardcore punk. Early ska punk mixed both 2 tone and ska with hardc ...
_promoted_an_updated_version_of_ skanking._
Hardcore_dancing Moshing (also known as slam dancing or simply slamming) is an extreme style of dancing in which participants push or slam into each other, typically performed to "aggressive" live music such as heavy metal and punk rock. Moshing usually happen ...
_is_a_later_development_influenced_by_all_of_the_above-mentioned_styles._ Psychobillies_prefer_to_"wreck",_a_form_of_slam_dancing_that_involves_people_punching_each_other_in_the_chest_and_arms_as_they_move_around_the_circle_pit.


_Literature

Punk_has_generated_a_considerable_amount_of_poetry_and_prose_ Prose_is_a_form_of_written_or_spoken_language_that_follows_the__natural_flow_of_speech,_uses_a_language's_ordinary__grammatical_structures,_or_follows_the_conventions_of_formal__academic_writing._It_differs_from_most_traditional_poetry,_where_the__...
._Punk_has_its_own_underground_press_ The_terms_underground_press_or_clandestine_press_refer_to_periodicals_and_publications_that_are_produced_without_official_approval,_illegally_or_against_the_wishes_of_a_dominant_(governmental,_religious,_or_institutional)_group._ In_specific_rec_...
_in_the_form_of_
punk_zine A punk zine (or punkzine) is a zine related to the punk subculture and hardcore punk music genre. Often primitively or casually produced, they feature punk literature, such as social commentary, punk poetry, news, gossip, music reviews and arti ...
s,_which_feature_news,_gossip,_cultural_criticism,_and_interviews._Some_zines_take_the_form_of_
perzine Perzines are a genre of zines; the "per" meaning "personal". Although most zines could be considered personal in that they represent the opinionated work of one person, this term describes zines that are written about one's own personal experienc ...
s._Important_punk_zines_include_''
Maximum_RocknRoll ''Maximumrocknroll'', often written as ''Maximum Rocknroll'' and usually abbreviated as ''MRR'', is a not-for-profit monthly zine of punk subculture. Based in San Francisco, ''MRR'' focuses on punk rock and hardcore music, and primarily featu ...
'',_''
Punk_Planet ''Punk Planet'' was a 16,000 print run punk zine, based in Chicago, Illinois, that focused most of its energy on looking at punk subculture rather than punk as simply another genre of music to which teenagers listen. In addition to covering music ...
'',_''
No_Cure ''No Cure'' was a fanzine based in Bracknell and Newbury, UK. Originally started by Richard Haworth, from issue 2 it was part-edited and produced by Richard Griffin and Richard H with regular contributions from Jah P. The fanzine took a major ...
'',_''
Cometbus Aaron Elliott (born May 20, 1968), better known as Aaron Cometbus, is an American musician, songwriter, roadie, and magazine editor, best known as the creator of the punk zine ''Cometbus''. Career Born in Berkeley, California, Cometbus started ...
'',_'' Flipside'',_and_'' Search_&_Destroy''._Several_novels,_biographies,_autobiographies,_and_comic_books_have_been_written_about_punk._'' Love_and_Rockets''_is_a_comic_with_a_plot_involving_the_Los_Angeles_punk_scene. Just_as_zines_played_an_important_role_in_spreading_information_in_the_punk_era_(e.g._British_fanzines_like_Mark_Perry's_''
Sniffin_Glue ''Sniffin' Glue and Other Rock 'N' Roll Habits...'', widely known as simply ''Sniffin' Glue'', was a monthly punk zine started by Mark Perry in July 1976 and released for about a year. The name is derived from a Ramones song " Now I Wanna Sniff ...
''_and_Shane_MacGowan's_''Bondage''),_zines_also_played_an_important_role_in_the_hardcore_scene._In_the_pre-Internet_era,_zines_enabled_readers_to_learn_about_bands,_shows,_clubs,_and_record_labels._Zines_typically_included_reviews_of_shows_and_records,_interviews_with_bands,_letters_to_the_editor,_and_advertisements_for_records_and_labels._Zines_were_DIY_products,_"proudly_amateur,_usually_handmade,_and_always_independent",_and_during_the_"'90s,_zines_were_the_primary_way_to_stay_up_on_punk_and_hardcore."_They_were_the_"blogs,_comment_sections,_and_social_networks_of_their_day." In_the_American_Midwest,_the_zine_''Touch_and_Go''_described_the_regional_hardcore_scene_from_1979_to_1983._''We_Got_Power''_described_the_LA_scene_from_1981_to_1984,_and_included_show_reviews_of_and_interviews_with_such_bands_as_Vancouver's_
D.O.A. DOA may refer to: * Dead on arrival * Dead or Alive (disambiguation) Film * ''D.O.A.'' (1949 film), a ''film noir'' * ''D.O.A.'' (1988 film), a remake of the 1949 film * '' D.O.A.: A Rite of Passage'' (1980 film), a documentary on the gene ...
,_the_
Misfits Misfits or The Misfits may refer to: Film and television * ''The Misfits'' (1961 film), a film starring Clark Gable, Marilyn Monroe, and Montgomery Clift * ''The Misfits'' (2011 film), a Mexican film * ''The Misfits'' (2021 film), an American ...
,_ Black_Flag,_
Suicidal_Tendencies Suicidal Tendencies is an American crossover thrash band formed in 1980 in Venice in Los Angeles, California by vocalist Mike Muir. Muir is the only remaining original member of the band. Along with D.R.I., Corrosion of Conformity, and Stor ...
,_and_the_ Circle_Jerks._''My_Rules''_was_a_photo_zine_that_included_photos_of_hardcore_shows_from_across_the_US._''In_Effect'',_which_began_in_1988,_described_the_New_York_City_scene. Punk_poets_include:_
Richard_Hell Richard Lester Meyers (born October 2, 1949), better known by his stage name Richard Hell, is an American singer, songwriter, bass guitarist and writer. Hell was in several important early punk rock bands, including Neon Boys, Television and ...
,_
Jim_Carroll James Dennis Carroll (August 1, 1949 – September 11, 2009) was an American author, poet, autobiographer, and punk musician. Carroll was best known for his 1978 autobiographical work '' The Basketball Diaries'', which inspired a 1995 film of ...
,_
Patti_Smith Patricia Lee Smith (born December 30, 1946) is an American singer, songwriter, poet, painter and author who became an influential component of the New York City punk rock movement with her 1975 debut album ''Horses''. Called the "punk poet ...
,_
John_Cooper_Clarke John Cooper Clarke (born 25 January 1949) is an English performance poet, who first became famous as a " punk poet" in the late 1970s. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, he released several albums. Around this time, he performed on stage with se ...
,_
Seething_Wells Seething Wells is a neighbourhood in southwest London on the border between Surbiton in the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames in Greater London, and Elmbridge in Surrey. The area was historically a waterworks that supplied London with water ...
,_
Raegan_Butcher CrimethInc., also known as CWC, which stands for either "CrimethInc. Ex-Workers Collective" or "CrimethInc Ex-Workers Ex-Collective", is a Decentralization, decentralized anarchist collective of autonomous Clandestine cell system, cells. * * * Cr ...
,_and_
Attila_the_Stockbroker John Baine (born 21 October 1957), better known by his stage name Attila the Stockbroker,Strong, Martin C. (2003) ''The Great Indie Discography'', Canongate, , p. 208 is an English punk poet, multi instrumentalist musician and songwriter. He pe ...
._
The_Medway_Poets The Medway Poets were founded in Medway, Kent, in 1979. They were an English punk based poetry performance group and later formed the core of the first Stuckists Art Group. The members were Miriam Carney, Billy Childish, Robert Earl, Bill Lewis ...
_performance_group_included_punk_musician_ Billy_Childish_and_had_an_influence_on_
Tracey_Emin Tracey Karima Emin, CBE, RA (; born 3 July 1963) is a British artist known for her autobiographical and confessional artwork. Emin produces work in a variety of media including drawing, painting, sculpture, film, photography, neon text and ...
._Jim_Carroll's_autobiographical_works_are_among_the_first_known_examples_of_punk_literature._The_punk_subculture_has_inspired_the_
cyberpunk Cyberpunk is a subgenre of science fiction in a dystopian futuristic setting that tends to focus on a "combination of lowlife and high tech", featuring futuristic technological and scientific achievements, such as artificial intelligence and c ...
_and_ steampunk_literature_genres,_and_has_even_contributed_(through_Iggy_Pop)_to_classical_scholarship.


_Film

Many__punk-themed_films_have_been_made._The_ No_Wave_Cinema_and_
Remodernist_film Remodernist film developed in the United States and the United Kingdom in the early 21st century with ideas related to those of the international art movement Stuckism and its manifesto, Remodernism. Key figures are Jesse Richards and Peter Rina ...
_movements_owe_much_to_punk_aesthetics._Several_famous_punk_bands_have_participated_in_movies,_such_as_the_Ramones_in_''
Rock_'n'_Roll_High_School ''Rock 'n' Roll High School'' is a 1979 American musical comedy film directed by Allan Arkush, produced by Michael Finnell, and starring P. J. Soles, Vince Van Patten, Clint Howard, and Dey Young. The film featured the punk rock group Ram ...
'',_the_Sex_Pistols_in_''
The_Great_Rock_'n'_Roll_Swindle ''The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle'' is a 1980 British mockumentary film directed by Julien Temple and produced by Don Boyd and Jeremy Thomas. It centres on the British punk rock band Sex Pistols and, most prominently, their manager Malcolm Mc ...
'',_and_
Social_Distortion Social Distortion is an American punk rock band formed in 1978 in Fullerton, California. The band currently consists of Mike Ness (lead vocals, lead guitar), Jonny Wickersham (rhythm guitar, backing vocals), Brent Harding (bass, backing voca ...
_in_'' Another_State_of_Mind''._
Derek_Jarman Michael Derek Elworthy Jarman (31 January 1942 – 19 February 1994) was an English artist, film maker, costume designer, stage designer, writer, gardener and gay rights activist. Biography Jarman was born at the Royal Victoria Nursing Home ...
_and_ Don_Letts_are_notable_punk_filmmakers._
Penelope_Spheeris Penelope Spheeris (born December 2, 1945 or 1946; sources differ) is an American film director, producer, and screenwriter. She has directed both documentary and scripted films. Her best-known works include the trilogy titled '' The Decline of ...
'_first_instalment_of_the_documentary_trilogy_"
The_Decline_of_Western_Civilization ''The Decline of Western Civilization'' is a 1981 American documentary filmed through 1979 and 1980. The movie is about the Los Angeles punk rock scene and was directed by Penelope Spheeris. In 1981, the LAPD Chief of Police Daryl Gates wrote a ...
"_(1981)_focuses_on_the_early_Los_Angeles_punk_scene_through_interviews_and_early_concert_footage_from_bands_including_ Black_Flag,_ Circle_Jerks,_ Germs,_and_
Fear Fear is an intensely unpleasant emotion in response to perceiving or recognizing a danger or threat. Fear causes physiological changes that may produce behavioral reactions such as mounting an aggressive response or fleeing the threat. Fear ...
._
The_Decline_of_Western_Civilization_III ''The Decline of Western Civilization III'' is a 1998 documentary film, directed by Penelope Spheeris, that chronicles the gutter punk lifestyle of homeless teenagers. It is the third film of a trilogy by Spheeris depicting life in Los Angeles at ...
"_explores_the_
gutter_punk A gutter punk is a homeless or transient individual who displays a variety of specific lifestyle traits and characteristics that often, but not always, are associated with the punk subculture. Attributes may include unkempt dreadlocks, nose rings ...
_lifestyle_in_the_1990s._''
Loren_Cass ''Loren Cass'' is a feature-length motion picture about adolescents coming to terms with their lives in St. Petersburg, Florida, after the riots that took place in 1996. It was directed by independent film-maker Chris Fuller and took ten years to ...
''_is_another_example_of_the_punk_subculture_represented_in_film. The_ Japanese_cyberpunk_movement_has_roots_in_the_
Japanese_punk , sometimes abbreviated to , is rock music from Japan. Influenced by American and British rock of the 1960s, the first rock bands in Japan performed what is called Group Sounds, with lyrics almost exclusively in English. Folk rock band Happy End ...
_subculture_that_arose_in_the_1970s._The_filmmaker_ Sogo_Ishii_introduced_this_subculture_to_
Japanese_cinema The has a history that spans more than 100 years. Japan has one of the oldest and largest film industries in the world; as of 2021, it was the fourth largest by number of feature films produced. In 2011 Japan produced 411 feature films that ea ...
_with_his_punk_films_''
Panic_High_School , also known as ''High School Big Panic'' and ''Panic in High School'', is a 1978 Japanese youth suspense action film directed by Gakuryū Ishii and . The film is a remake of a film of the same name released the year before and also directed by Is ...
''_(1978)_and_''
Crazy_Thunder_Road is a 1980 Japanese punk-action-biker film written and directed by Gakuryū Ishii , formerly known as , is a Japanese filmmaker known for his stylistic punk films, which helped spark the cyberpunk movement in Japan. A number of contemporary fi ...
''_(1980),_which_portrayed_the_rebellion_and_anarchy_associated_with_punk,_and_went_on_to_become_highly_influential_in_
underground_film An underground film is a film that is out of the mainstream either in its style, genre or financing. Notable examples include: John Waters' ''Pink Flamingos'', David Lynch's ''Eraserhead'', Andy Warhol's '' Blue Movie'', Rosa von Praunheim's '' ...
_circles._''Crazy_Thunder_Road''_in_particular_was_an_influential_
biker_film This list is for films where at least one biker appears as a significant plot element. A bike in a film does not qualify for this list. Before 1960 * '' The Uncontrollable Motorcycle'' (1909) * '' Alkali Ike's Motorcycle'' (1912) * '' A Motorcyc ...
,_with_a_punk_ biker_gang_aesthetic_that_paved_the_way_for_ Katsuhiro_Otomo's_ manga_and_
anime is Traditional animation, hand-drawn and computer animation, computer-generated animation originating from Japan. Outside of Japan and in English, ''anime'' refers specifically to animation produced in Japan. However, in Japan and in Japane ...
_franchise_'' Akira''_(1982_debut)._Ishii's_next_film_was_the_frenetic_''Shuffle''_(1981),_an_unofficial_short_film_adaptation_of_a_ manga_ comic_strip_by_Otomo. The_documentary_film_''
Afro-Punk Afro-punk (sometimes spelled Afro-Punk, Afropunk or AfroPunk) refers to the participation of African Americans and other Black people in punk and alternative subcultures, especially in the United States. History The term originated from the 200 ...
''_covers_the_black_experience_in_the_punk_DIY_scene.


_Perspectives_on_drugs_and_alcohol


_Inhalable_solvents

" luesniffing_was_adopted_by_punks_because_public_perceptions_of_sniffing_fitted_in_with_their_self-image._Originally_used_experimentally_and_as_a_cheap_high,_adult_disgust_and_hostility_encouraged_punks_to_use_glue_sniffing_as_a_way_of_shocking_society."_Model_airplane_glue_and_contact_cement_were_among_the_numerous_solvents_and_inhalants_used_by_punks_to_achieve_euphoria_and_intoxication._Glue_was_typically_inhaled_by_placing_a_quantity_in_a_plastic_bag_and_"huffing"_(inhaling)_the_vapour._Liquid_solvents_were_typically_inhaled_by_soaking_a_rag_with_the_solvent_and_inhaling_the_vapour._While_users_inhale_solvents_for_the_intoxicating_effects,_the_practice_can_be_harmful_or_fatal.


_Straight_edge

Straight_edge_is_a_philosophy_of_hardcore_punk_culture,_adherents_of_which_refrain_from_using_alcohol,_tobacco,_and_other_recreational_drugs,_in_reaction_to_the_excesses_of_punk_subculture._For_some,_this_extends_to_refraining_from_engaging_in_promiscuous_sex,_following_a_vegetarian_or_
vegan Veganism is the practice of abstaining from the use of animal product—particularly in diet—and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. An individual who follows the diet or philosophy is known as a vegan. ...
_diet,_and_not_drinking_coffee_or_taking_prescribed_medicine._The_term_''straight_edge''_was_adopted_from_the_1981_song_" Straight_Edge"_by_the_hardcore_punk_band_
Minor_Threat Minor Threat was an American hardcore punk band, formed in 1980 in Washington, D.C. by vocalist Ian MacKaye and drummer Jeff Nelson. MacKaye and Nelson had played in several other bands together, and recruited bassist Brian Baker and guitaris ...
. Straight_edge_emerged_amid_the_early-1980s_hardcore_punk_scene._Since_then,_a_wide_variety_of_beliefs_and_ideas_have_been_associated_with_the_movement,_including_vegetarianism_and_animal_rights._Ross_Haenfler_writes_that_as_of_the_late_1990s,_approximately_three_out_of_four_straight_edge_participants_were_vegetarian_or_vegan._While_the_commonly_expressed_aspects_of_the_straight_edge_subculture_have_been_abstinence_from_alcohol,_nicotine,_and_illegal_drugs,_there_have_been_considerable_variations_on_how_far_to_take_the_interpretations_of_"abstaining_from_intoxicants"_or_"living_drug-free"._Disagreements_often_arise_as_to_the_primary_reasons_for_living_straight_edge._Straight_edge_politics_are_primarily_left-wing_and_revolutionary_but_there_have_been_conservative_offshoots. In_1999,_William_Tsitsos_wrote_that_straight_edge_had_gone_through_three_eras_since_its_founding_in_the_early_1980s._
Bent_edge Bent edge or curved edge was a hardcore punk subculture that was formed as counter-movement to the straight edge movement. It was started by members of Washington, DC hardcore scene who were fed up with the rigidness and intolerance in the nascent ...
_began_as_a_counter-movement_to_straight_edge_by_members_of_the_
Washington,_D.C._hardcore Washington, D.C., hardcore, commonly referred to as D.C. hardcore, sometimes styled in writing as harDCore, is the hardcore punk scene of Washington, D.C. Emerging in late 1979, it is considered one of the first and most influential punk scenes in ...
_scene_who_were_frustrated_by_the_rigidity_and_intolerance_in_the_scene._During_the_
youth_crew Youth crew is a music subculture of hardcore punk, which was particularly prominent during the New York hardcore scene of the late 1980s. Youth crew is distinguished from other punk styles by its optimism and moralistic outlook. The original yout ...
_era,_which_started_in_the_mid-1980s,_the_influence_of_music_on_the_straight_edge_scene_was_at_an_all-time_high._By_the_early_1990s,_militant_straight_edge_was_a_well-known_part_of_the_wider_punk_scene._In_the_early_to_mid-1990s,_straight_edge_spread_from_the_United_States_to_Northern_Europe,_Eastern_Europe,_the_Middle_East,_and_South_America._By_the_beginning_of_the_2000s,_militant_straight_edge_punks_had_largely_left_the_broader_straight_edge_culture_and_movement.


_Lifestyle_and_community

Punks_come_from_all_culture_and_economic_classes._Compared_to_some_subcultures,_punk_ideology_is_much_closer_to_
gender_equality Gender equality, also known as sexual equality or equality of the sexes, is the state of equal ease of access to resources and opportunities regardless of gender, including economic participation and decision-making; and the state of valuing d ...
._Although_the_punk_subculture_is_mostly_
anti-racist Anti-racism encompasses a range of ideas and political actions which are meant to counter racial prejudice, systemic racism, and the oppression of specific racial groups. Anti-racism is usually structured around conscious efforts and deliberate ...
,_it_is_overwhelmingly_white._However,_members_of_other_groups_(such_as_African_Americans,_other_ black_people,_Latinos,_and_Asians)_have_contributed_to_the_development_of_the_subculture._Substance_abuse_has_sometimes_been_a_part_of_the_punk_scene,_with_the_notable_exception_of_the_straight_edge_movement._Violence_has_also_sometimes_appeared_in_the_punk_subculture,_but_has_been_opposed_by_some_subsets_of_the_subculture,_such_as_the_pacifist_strain_
anarcho-punk Anarcho-punk (also known as anarchist punk or peace punk) is ideological subgenre of punk rock that promotes anarchism. Some use the term broadly to refer to any punk music with anarchist lyrical content, which may figure in crust punk, hardcor ...
. Punks_often_form_a_local_scene,_which_can_have_as_few_as_half_a_dozen_members_in_a_small_town,_or_as_many_as_thousands_of_in_a_major_city._A_local_scene_usually_has_a_small_group_of_dedicated_punks_surrounded_by_a_more_casual_periphery._A_typical_punk_scene_is_made_up_of_punk_and_hardcore_bands,_fans_who_attend_concerts,_protests,_and_other_events,_zine_publishers,_reviewers,_and_other_writers,_visual_artists_illustrating_zines,_and_creating_posters_and_album_covers,_show_promoters,_and_people_who_work_at_music_venues_or_
independent_record_label An independent record label (or indie label) is a record label that operates without the funding or distribution of major record labels; they are a type of small- to medium-sized enterprise, or SME. The labels and artists are often represented ...
s. Squatting_plays_a_role_in_many_punk_communities,_providing_shelter_and_other_forms_of_support._Squats_in_abandoned_or_condemned_housing,_and_communal_"
punk_house A punk house is a dwelling occupied by members of the punk subculture. Punk houses are often centered on certain political or personal ideologies. It is not uncommon for a punk house to be anarchist, strictly straight-edge, or vegan. A cliqu ...
s"_often_provide_bands_a_place_to_stay_while_they_are_touring._There_are_some_punk_
communes An intentional community is a voluntary residential community which is designed to have a high degree of social cohesion and teamwork from the start. The members of an intentional community typically hold a common social, political, relig ...
,_such_as_Essex's_ Dial_House._The_Internet_has_been_playing_an_increasingly_large_role_in_punk,_specifically_in_the_form_of_
virtual_communities A virtual community is a social network of individuals who connect through specific social media, potentially crossing geographical and political boundaries in order to pursue mutual interests or goals. Some of the most pervasive virtual communi ...
_and_file_sharing_programs_for_trading_music_files.


_Authenticity

In_the_punk_and_hardcore_subcultures,_members_of_the_scene_are_often_evaluated_in_terms_of_the_
authenticity Authenticity or authentic may refer to: * Authentication, the act of confirming the truth of an attribute Arts and entertainment * Authenticity in art, ways in which a work of art or an artistic performance may be considered authentic Music * A ...
_of_their_commitment_to_the_values_or_philosophies_of_the_scene,_which_may_range_from_political_beliefs_to_lifestyle_practices._In_the_punk_subculture,_the_epithet_''
poseur A poseur is someone who poses for effect, or behaves affectedly, who affects a particular attitude, character or manner to impress others, or who pretends to belong to a particular group.
''_(or_"poser")_is_used_to_describe_"a_person_who_habitually_pretends_to_be_something_
hey_are Hey or Hey! may refer to: Music * Hey (band), a Polish rock band Albums * ''Hey'' (Andreas Bourani album) or the title song (see below), 2014 * ''Hey!'' (Julio Iglesias album) or the title song, 1980 * ''Hey!'' (Jullie album) or the title ...
not."_The_term_is_used_to_refer_to_a_person_who_adopts_the_dress,_speech,_and/or_mannerisms_of_a_particular_subculture,_yet_who_is_deemed_to_not_share_or_understand_the_values_or_philosophy_of_the_subculture. While_this_perceived_inauthenticity_is_viewed_with_scorn_and_contempt_by_members_of_the_subculture,_the_definition_of_the_term_and_to_whom_it_should_be_applied_is_subjective._An_article_in_''Drowned_in_Sound''_argues_that_1980s-era_"
hardcore Hardcore, hard core or hard-core may refer to: Arts and media Film * ''Hardcore'' (1977 film), a British comedy film * ''Hardcore'' (1979 film), an American crime drama film starring George C Scott * ''Hardcore'' (2001 film), a British documen ...
_is_the_true_spirit_of_punk",_because_"after_all_the_poseurs_and_fashionistas_fucked_off_to_the_next_trend_of_skinny_pink_ties_with_ New_Romantic_haircuts,_singing_wimpy_lyrics",_the_punk_scene_consisted_only_of_people_"completely_dedicated_to_the_
DIY "Do it yourself" ("DIY") is the method of building, modifying, or repairing things by oneself without the direct aid of professionals or certified experts. Academic research has described DIY as behaviors where "individuals use raw and sem ...
_ethics". Proto-punk_bands_such_as_
the_Who The Who are an English rock band formed in London in 1964. Their classic lineup consisted of lead singer Roger Daltrey, guitarist and singer Pete Townshend, bass guitarist and singer John Entwistle, and drummer Keith Moon. They are considered ...
,_
the_Stooges The Stooges, originally billed as the Psychedelic Stooges, also known as Iggy and the Stooges, was an American rock band formed in Ann Arbor, Michigan, in 1967 by singer Iggy Pop, guitarist Ron Asheton, drummer Scott Asheton, and bassist Da ...
,_the_Velvet_Underground,_
Pink_Fairies Pink Fairies are an English rock band initially active in the London (Ladbroke Grove) underground and psychedelic scene of the early 1970s. They promoted free music, drug use, and anarchy, and often performed impromptu gigs and other stunts, ...
,_the_Deviants,_and_
Edgar_Broughton_Band The Edgar Broughton Band, founded in Warwick in 1968, were an English rock band. Career The band started their career as a blues group under the name of The Edgar Broughton Blues Band, playing to a small following in the region around t ...
_came_out_of_garage-rock_during_the_late_1960s._Usually,_white_working-class_boys_are_credited_for_pioneering_the_genre,_however,_there_were_many_women_(
Patti_Smith Patricia Lee Smith (born December 30, 1946) is an American singer, songwriter, poet, painter and author who became an influential component of the New York City punk rock movement with her 1975 debut album ''Horses''. Called the "punk poet ...
,_
Siouxsie_Sioux Susan Janet Ballion (born 27 May 1957), known professionally as Siouxsie Sioux, is an English singer, songwriter, musician and record producer. She was the lead singer of the rock band Siouxsie and the Banshees (1976–1996). They released 11 ...
)_and_people_of_color_(the_Specials_member)_who_contributed_to_the_original_punk_sound_and_aesthetic._Because_the_original_subculture_meant_to_challenge_to_the_mainstream,_and_punk_movement_became_major_it_was_brought_to_the_mainstream._If_punk_is_commercialized,_it_is_far_from_street_culture._This_is_the_paradox_of_punk;_as_a_subculture,_it_must_always_be_evolving_to_stay_out_of_the_mainstream. ''Punk_Girls''_written_by_
Liz_Ham Liz Ham (born 1975) is an English-born Australian photographer based in Sydney, Australia. Ham has photographed urban life, fashion, music and politics for years and in 2017 published a photography book called ''Punk Girls''. Some of Ham's pho ...
_is_a_
photo-book A photo book or photobook is a book in which photographs make a significant contribution to the overall content. A photo book is related to and also often used as a coffee table book. Early Early photo books are characterized by their use o ...
_featuring_100_portraits_of_Australian_women_in_the_punk_subculture,_and_it_was_published_in_2017_by_Manuscript_Daily._Discrimination_against_punk_subculture_is_explored_with_her_photographs_in_the_book;_these_''girls''_who_are_not_mainstream,_but_"beautiful_and_talented".


_Interactions_with_other_subcultures

Some_of_the_first_hip_hop_ MCs_called_themselves_punk_rockers,_and_some_
punk_fashion Punk fashion is the clothing, hairstyles, cosmetics, jewellery, and body modifications of the punk counterculture. Punk fashion varies widely, ranging from Vivienne Westwood designs to styles modeled on bands like The Exploited to the dressed-dow ...
s_have_found_their_way_into_hip_hop_dress_and_vice_versa._ Malcolm_McLaren_played_roles_in_introducing_both_punk_and_hip_hop_to_the_United_Kingdom._Hip_hop_later_influenced_some_punk_and_
hardcore Hardcore, hard core or hard-core may refer to: Arts and media Film * ''Hardcore'' (1977 film), a British comedy film * ''Hardcore'' (1979 film), an American crime drama film starring George C Scott * ''Hardcore'' (2001 film), a British documen ...
_bands,_such_as_the_
Beastie_Boys Beastie Boys were an American rap rock group from New York City, formed in 1978. The group was composed of Mike D, Michael "Mike D" Diamond (vocals, drums), Adam Yauch, Adam "MCA" Yauch (vocals, bass), and Ad-Rock, Adam "Ad-Rock" Horovitz (voca ...
,_ Hed_PE,_
Blaggers_I.T.A. Blaggers ITA (formerly The Blaggers) were a British punk rock band founded in 1988. Main vocalist Matty 'Blagg' Roberts had previously fronted Oi! band Complete Control, who released an LP on ''Oi! Records'' in 1985 Blaggers ITA were noted for ...
,_
Biohazard A biological hazard, or biohazard, is a biological substance that poses a threat to the health of living organisms, primarily humans. This could include a sample of a microorganism, virus or toxin that can adversely affect human health. A bioh ...
,_
E.Town_Concrete E.Town Concrete, or sometimes called E-Town, is an American hardcore punk band from Elizabeth, New Jersey. They formed in 1995 and shortly thereafter released '' Time 2 Shine'', their first full-length album, in 1999 on the Resurrection A.D. lab ...
,_
The_Transplants The Transplants are an American punk rock/rap rock supergroup. They formed in 1999 when Tim Armstrong (of the bands Rancid and Operation Ivy) played his friend and roadie Rob Aston some beats he had made using Pro Tools and asked Aston if h ...
,_and_
Refused Refused (also known as the Refused) is a Swedish hardcore punk band originating from Umeå and formed in 1991. Refused is composed of vocalist Dennis Lyxzén, guitarist Kristofer Steen, drummer David Sandström, and bassist Magnus Flagge. G ...
._Other_rappers_and_hip-hop_acts_were_influenced_by_the_subcultures_of_crust_punk_and_hardcore_such_as_
City_Morgue City Morgue is an American hip hop group from New York City which consists of rappers ZillaKami (Junius Rogers) and SosMula (Vinicius Sosa). History Prior to the formation of City Morgue in 2017, Junius Rogers, professionally known as ZillaKa ...
. The_
skinhead A skinhead is a member of a subculture which originated among working class youths in London, England, in the 1960s and soon spread to other parts of the United Kingdom, with a second working class skinhead movement emerging worldwide in th ...
_subculture_of_the_United_Kingdom_in_the_late_1960s_–_which_had_almost_disappeared_in_the_early_1970s_–_was_revived_in_the_late_1970s,_partly_because_of_the_influence_of_punk_rock,_especially_the_Oi!_ Oi!_is_a_subgenre_of__punk_rock_that_originated_in_the_United_Kingdom_in_the_late_1970s._The_music_and_its_associated_subculture_had_the_goal_of_bringing_together__punks,_skinheads,_and_other_disaffected_working-class_youth._The_movement_was__...
_punk_subgenre._Conversely,_
ska Ska (; ) is a music genre that originated in Jamaica in the late 1950s and was the precursor to rocksteady and reggae. It combined elements of Caribbean mento and calypso with American jazz and rhythm and blues. Ska is characterized by a walki ...
_and_
reggae Reggae () is a music genre that originated in Jamaica in the late 1960s. The term also denotes the modern popular music of Jamaica and its diaspora. A 1968 single by Toots and the Maytals, " Do the Reggay" was the first popular song to use ...
,_popular_among_ traditionalist_skinheads,_has_influenced_several_punk_musicians._Punks_and_skinheads_have_had_both_antagonistic_and_friendly_relationships,_depending_on_the_social_circumstances,_time_period,_and_geographic_location. The_punk_and_ heavy_metal_subcultures_have_shared_some_similarities_since_punk's_inception._The_early_1970s_protopunk_scene_had_an_influence_on_the_development_of_heavy_metal._
Alice_Cooper Alice Cooper (born Vincent Damon Furnier, February 4, 1948) is an American rock singer whose career spans over five decades. With a raspy voice and a stage show that features numerous props and stage illusions, including pyrotechnics, guillot ...
_was_a_forerunner_of_the_fashion_and_music_of_both_the_punk_and_metal_subcultures._
Motörhead Motörhead () were an English rock band formed in London in 1975 by Lemmy (lead vocals, bass), Larry Wallis (guitar) and Lucas Fox (drums). Lemmy was also the primary songwriter and only constant member. The band are often considered a precu ...
,_since_their_first_album_release_in_1977,_have_enjoyed_continued_popularity_in_the_punk_scene,_and_their_now-deceased_frontman_ Lemmy_was_a_fan_of_punk_rock._Genres_such_as_ metalcore,_ grindcore,_and_
crossover_thrash Crossover thrash (often abbreviated to crossover) is a fusion genre of thrash metal and hardcore punk. The genre lies on a continuum between heavy metal and hardcore punk. Other genres on the same continuum, such as metalcore and grindcore, ...
_were_greatly_influenced_by_punk_rock_and_heavy_metal._The_
new_wave_of_British_heavy_metal The new wave of British heavy metal (commonly abbreviated as NWOBHM) was a nationwide musical movement that started in England in the mid-1970s and achieved international attention by the early 1980s. Journalist Geoff Barton coined the term i ...
_influenced_the_ UK_82-style_of_bands_like_ Discharge,_and_hardcore_was_a_primary_influence_on_
thrash_metal Thrash metal (or simply thrash) is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music characterized by its overall aggression and often fast tempo.Kahn-Harris, Keith, ''Extreme Metal: Music and Culture on the Edge'', pp. 2–3, 9. Oxford: Berg, 2007, . ...
_bands_such_as_ Metallica_and_ Slayer._The_early_1990s_ grunge_subculture_was_a_fusion_of_punk_
anti-fashion Anti-fashion is an umbrella term for various styles of dress which are explicitly contrary to the fashion of the day. Anti-fashion styles may represent an attitude of indifference or may arise from political or practical goals which make fashi ...
_ideals_and_metal-influenced_guitar_sounds._However,_hardcore_punk_and_grunge_developed_in_part_as_reactions_against_the_heavy_metal_music_that_was_popular_during_the_1980s. In_punk's_heyday,_punks_faced_harassment_and_attacks_from_the_general_public_and_from_members_of_other_subcultures._In_the_1980s_in_the_UK,_punks_were_sometimes_involved_in_brawls_with_
Teddy_Boys The Teddy Boys or Teds were a mainly British youth subculture of the mid 1950s to mid 1960s who were interested in rock and roll and R&B music, wearing clothes partly inspired by the styles worn by dandies in the Edwardian period, which ...
,_ greasers,_ bikers,_ mods,_and_members_of_other_subcultures._There_was_also_considerable_enmity_between_Positive_punks_(known_today_as_
goths The Goths ( got, 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰, translit=''Gutþiuda''; la, Gothi, grc-gre, Γότθοι, Gótthoi) were a Germanic people who played a major role in the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the emergence of medieval Europe ...
)_and_the_glamorously_dressed_ New_Romantics. In_the_late_1970s,_punks_were_known_to_have_had_confrontations_with_ hippies_due_to_the_contrasting_ideologies_and_backlash_of_the_hippie_culture._Nevertheless,_ Penny_Rimbaud_of_the_English_anarcho-punk_band_
Crass Crass were an English art collective and punk rock band formed in Epping, Essex in 1977, who promoted anarchism as a political ideology, a lifestylism, way of life, and a resistance movement. Crass popularised the anarcho-punk movement of the ...
_said_that_Crass_was_formed_in_memory_of_his_friend,_the_hippie_
Wally_Hope Philip Alexander Grahame Russell (9 August 1947 — 3 September 1975), known as Wally Hope, was an experimental philosopher of the UK Underground and organiser of the Windsor Free Festival and the Stonehenge Free Festival. Biography Activities ...
._Rimbaud_also_said_that_Crass_were_heavily_involved_with_the_hippie_movement_throughout_the_1960s_and_1970s,_with_Dial_House_being_established_in_1967._Many_punks_were_often_critical_of_Crass_for_their_involvement_in_the_hippie_movement._Like_Crass,_
Jello_Biafra Eric Reed Boucher (born June 17, 1958), known professionally as Jello Biafra, is an American singer, spoken word artist and politician. He is the former lead singer and songwriter for the San Francisco punk rock band Dead Kennedys. Initially ac ...
_was_influenced_by_the_hippie_movement_and_cited_the_
yippie The Youth International Party (YIP), whose members were commonly called Yippies, was an American youth-oriented radical and countercultural revolutionary offshoot of the free speech and anti-war movements of the late 1960s. It was founded on ...
s_as_a_key_influence_on_his_political_activism_and_thinking,_though_he_did_write_songs_critical_of_hippies. The_
industrial Industrial may refer to: Industry * Industrial archaeology, the study of the history of the industry * Industrial engineering, engineering dealing with the optimization of complex industrial processes or systems * Industrial city, a city dominate ...
_and_
rivethead A rivethead or rivet head is a person associated with the industrial dance music scene. In stark contrast to the original industrial culture, whose performers and heterogeneous audience were sometimes referred to as "industrialists", the rivethe ...
_subcultures_have_had_several_ties_to_punk,_in_terms_of_music,_fashion,_and_attitude.
Power_pop Power pop (also typeset as powerpop) is a form of pop rock based on the early music of bands such as the Who, the Beatles, the Beach Boys, and the Byrds. It typically incorporates melodic hooks, vocal harmonies, an energetic performance, and c ...
_music_(as_defined_by_groups_such_as_
Badfinger Badfinger were a Welsh rock band formed in Swansea, who were active from the 1960s to the 1980s. Their best-known lineup consisted of Pete Ham (vocals, guitar), Mike Gibbins (drums), Tom Evans (bass), and Joey Molland (guitar). They are rec ...
,_
Cheap_Trick Cheap Trick is an American rock band from Rockford, Illinois, formed in 1973 by guitarist Rick Nielsen, bassist Tom Petersson, lead vocalist Robin Zander and drummer Bun E. Carlos. The current lineup of the band consists of Zander, Nielsen ...
,_
The_Knack The Knack was an American rock band based in Los Angeles that rose to fame with its first single, " My Sharona", an international number-one hit in 1979. History Founding (1977–1978) Singer Doug Fieger was a native of Oak Park, Michigan, a ...
,_and_
The_Romantics The Romantics are an American rock band formed in 1977 in Detroit. The band is often put under the banner of new wave and power pop. They were influenced by 1950s American rock and roll, Detroit's MC5, the Stooges, early Bob Seger, Motown R&B ...
)_emerged_in_mostly_the_same_time_frame_and_geographical_area_as_punk_rock,_and_they_shared_a_great_deal_musically_in_terms_of_playing_short_songs_loud_and_fast_while_trying_to_emphasize_catchy_feelings._More_melodic_and_pop-influenced_punk_music_has_also_often_been_wrapped_alongside_power_pop_bands_under_the_general_"
new_wave_music New wave is a loosely defined music genre that encompasses pop-oriented styles from the late 1970s and the 1980s. It was originally used as a catch-all for the various styles of music that emerged after punk rock, including punk itself. La ...
"_label._A_good_example_of_a_genre-straddling_"power_pop_punk"_band_is_the_popular_
Northern_Ireland Northern Ireland ( ga, Tuaisceart Éireann ; sco, label= Ulster-Scots, Norlin Airlann) is a part of the United Kingdom, situated in the north-east of the island of Ireland, that is variously described as a country, province or region. Nort ...
_group_
Protex Protex are a Belfast Punk rock, punk band which formed in 1978. Their first records were issued on Good Vibrations (record label), Good Vibrations records. They formed part of the first wave of Belfast punk bands along with label-mates The Und ...
._However,_stylistically_and_lyrically,_power_pop_bands_have_tended_to_have_a_very_"not-punk"_top_40_commercial_pop_music_influence_and_a_flashier,_heavily_teen-pop_sense_of_fashion,_especially_modern_power_pop_groups_such_as_ Stereo_Skyline_and_
All_Time_Low All Time Low is an American rock band from Towson, Maryland, formed in 2003. Consisting of lead vocalist/rhythm guitarist Alex Gaskarth, lead guitarist Jack Barakat, bassist/backing vocalist Zack Merrick, and drummer Rian Dawson, the band to ...
.


_Persecution


_East_Germany

The_punk_scene_began_to_emerge_in_socialist_
East_Germany East Germany, officially the German Democratic Republic (GDR; german: Deutsche Demokratische Republik, , DDR, ), was a country that existed from its creation on 7 October 1949 until its dissolution on 3 October 1990. In these years the state ...
_in_the_late_1970’s._It_shared_many_similarities_with_that_of_the_West_and_was_considered_by_the_ruling_authorities_to_be_a_spread_of_an_international_youth_sub-culture_which_had_its_roots_in_the_U.S.A._and_Western_Europe._Indeed,_this_was_an_assessment_many_East_German_punks_shared_themselves._According_to_one,_Mario_Schulz,_"The_start_was_that_I_liked_the_music._I_did_not_quite_understand_the_English_texts,_but_this_ostentatious_experience_as_an_outsider,_this_capacity_to_shock,_that_pleased_me._I_was_already-_someone_else_would_probably_express_it_differently-_an_awkward_sod." By_the_authorities,_punk_was_seen_as_representing_a_way_of_life_which_was_contrary_in_nature_to_existing_social_conventions_and_values._Punks_were,_however,_not_the_only_youth_sub-culture_to_be_considered_‘negative_decadent’__and_a_threat_to_the_stability_of_socialist_society:_heavy_metallers,_skinheads,_and_goths_were_also_targeted._Whilst_it_is_hard_to_ascertain_an_exact_figure,_the_punk_scene_in_East_Germany_in_the_early_1980s_was_still_relatively_small._For_example,_‘In_1981,_the_ Stasi_(secret_police)_identified_1,000_punks_and_a_broader_group_of_10,000_sympathisers.’_Punks,_whether_considered_as_individuals_or_as_groups,_were_persecuted_by_both_the_regular_police_and_the_Stasi._More_overt_methods_of_persecution_by_the_regular_police-_such_as_enforced_haircutting,_arrest,_and_physical_beatings-_were_combined_unofficially_with_the_more_insidious_and_far-reaching_
decomposition_methods Decomposition or rot is the process by which dead organic substances are broken down into simpler organic or inorganic matter such as carbon dioxide, water, simple sugars and mineral salts. The process is a part of the nutrient cycle and is e ...
_(trans._Zersetzung)_of_the_Stasi:_these_involved_various_forms_of_
infiltration Infiltration may refer to: Science, medicine, and engineering *Infiltration (hydrology), downward movement of water into soil *Infiltration (HVAC), a heating, ventilation, and air conditioning term for air leakage into buildings *Infiltration (me ...
,_ false_flag_type_acts,_ framing,_
psychological_harassment Harassment covers a wide range of behaviors of offensive nature. It is commonly understood as behavior that demeans, humiliates or embarrasses a person, and it is characteristically identified by its unlikelihood in terms of social and moral ...
_methods_designed_to_cause_mental_health_problems,_and_ incarceration_on_the_basis_of_mental_health_legislation_or_on_the_basis_of_ crimes_ostensibly_committed.__As_the_methods_of_the_Stasi_were_difficult_to_detect_and_even_harder_to_prove,_it_allowed_them_to_circumvent_international_condemnation_in_regard_to_the_persecution_of_their_own_citizens._Aside_from_being_designed_to_harm_people,_the_methods_were_also_designed_to_discredit_and_isolate_individuals_and_break_up_the_various_bands_and_groupings._They_relied_heavily_on_the_hiring_of_collaborators_who_were_of_a_similar_disposition_to_those_who_were_being_targeted._According_to_Stasi_officers,_this_was_a_task_which_was_harder_to_achieve_with_punks_due_to_their_‘feeling_of_belonging_together.’_Nonetheless,_the_Stasi_did_have_notable_success_in_the_repression_and_decomposition_of_the_punk_scene._Former_member_of_the_band_''Namenlos'',_Jana_Schlosser,_stated_in_1984_when_she_came_out_of_jail,_that_"The_Stasi_had_pretty_well_managed_to_smash_punk."


_Global_perspectives

The_punk_subculture_has_spread_to_many_countries_around_the_world._The_fluidity_of_musical_expression_in_particular_makes_it_an_ideal_medium_for_this_cross-cultural_interpretation.


_Mexico

In_Mexico,_punk_culture_is_primarily_a_phenomenon_among_the_upper-middle_class,_many_of_whom_were_first_exposed_to_punk_music_through_travel_to_England,_but_rapidly_shifted_to_the_lower-class_youth._Because_of_low_fees_at_public_universities_in_Mexico,_a_significant_majority_of_Mexican_punks_are_university_students._It_is_estimated_approximately_5,000_young_people_are_active_punks_in_Mexico_City,_hosting_two_or_three_underground_shows_a_week._These_young_people_often_form_chavos_banda—youth_gangs—that_organized_subculture_activity_by_creating_formal_meeting_spaces_and_rituals_and_practices. Oral_nicknames_are_a_distinguishing_feature_of_Mexican_punk,_where_the_tradition_of_oral_culture_has_influenced_the_development_of_nicknames_for_almost_all_Mexican_punks._Patches_are_widely_used_as_an_inexpensive_way_to_alter_clothing_and_express_identity._Though_English-language_bands_like_the_
Dead_Kennedys Dead Kennedys are an American punk rock band that formed in San Francisco, California, in 1978. The band was one of the defining punk bands during its initial eight-year run. Dead Kennedys' lyrics were usually political in nature, satirizing p ...
_are_well_known_in_Mexico,_punks_there_prefer_Spanish-language_music_or_covers_translated_into_Spanish._The_slam_dance_style_common_in_the_California_punk_scene_of_the_early_1980s_is_thoroughly_adopted_as_part_of_the_movement_and_continues_to_be_the_most_popular_dancing_style_among_punks. Performance_and_ideology_practices_often_reflect_the_socioeconomic_circumstances_of_Mexican_punks._Live_shows,_called_"Tocadas"_are_generally_held_in_public_spaces_like_basketball_courts_or_community_centers_instead_of_places_of_business_like_venues,_bars,_and_restaurants,_as_is_more_common_in_the_United_States_and_Europe._They_usually_take_place_in_the_afternoon_and_end_early_to_accommodate_the_two_or_three_hours_it_takes_many_punks_to_return_home_by_public_transit._Mexican_punk_groups_rarely_release_vinyl_or_CD_recordings,_usually_cassettes_are_the_preferred_format. Though_Mexican_punk_itself_does_not_have_an_explicit_political_agenda,_Mexican_punks_have_been_active_in_the_ Zapatista,_
Anarcho-punk Anarcho-punk (also known as anarchist punk or peace punk) is ideological subgenre of punk rock that promotes anarchism. Some use the term broadly to refer to any punk music with anarchist lyrical content, which may figure in crust punk, hardcor ...
,_and_
anti-globalisation_movement The anti-globalization movement or counter-globalization movement, is a social movement critical of economic globalization. The movement is also commonly referred to as the global justice movement, alter-globalization movement, anti-globalist m ...
s.


_South_Africa

Punk_arrived_slowly_in_South_Africa_during_the_1970s_when_waves_of_British_tradesmen_welcomed_by_the_then-
apartheid Apartheid (, especially South African English: , ; , "aparthood") was a system of institutionalised racial segregation that existed in South Africa and South West Africa (now Namibia) from 1948 to the early 1990s. Apartheid was ...
_government_brought_cultural_influences_like_the_popular_British_music_magazine_''
NME ''New Musical Express'' (''NME'') is a British music, film, gaming, and culture website and brand. Founded as a newspaper in 1952, with the publication being referred to as a 'rock inkie', the NME would become a magazine that ended up as a f ...
'',_sold_in_South_Africa_six_weeks_after_publication. South_African_punk_developed_separately_in_
Johannesburg Johannesburg ( , , ; Zulu and xh, eGoli ), colloquially known as Jozi, Joburg, or "The City of Gold", is the largest city in South Africa, classified as a megacity, and is one of the 100 largest urban areas in the world. According to Demo ...
,_
Durban Durban ( ) ( zu, eThekwini, from meaning 'the port' also called zu, eZibubulungwini for the mountain range that terminates in the area), nicknamed ''Durbs'',Ishani ChettyCity nicknames in SA and across the worldArticle on ''news24.com'' from ...
,_and_
Cape_Town Cape Town ( af, Kaapstad; , xh, iKapa) is one of South Africa's three capital cities, serving as the seat of the Parliament of South Africa. It is the legislative capital of the country, the oldest city in the country, and the second largest ...
_and_relied_on_live_performances_in_
townships A township is a kind of human settlement or administrative subdivision, with its meaning varying in different countries. Although the term is occasionally associated with an urban area, that tends to be an exception to the rule. In Australia, C ...
_and_streets_as_the_multi-racial_composition_of_bands_and_fan_bases_challenged_the_legal_and_social_conventions_of_the_apartheid_regime. Political_participation_is_foundational_to_punk_subculture_in_South_Africa._During_the_apartheid_regime,_punk_was_second_only_to_Rock_music_in_its_importance_to_multi-racial_interactions_in_South_Africa._Because_of_this,_any_involvement_in_the_punk_scene_was_in_itself_a_political_statement._Police_harassment_was_common_and_the_government_often_censored_explicitly_political_lyrics._Johannesburg-based_band_
National_Wake National Wake was a multiracial punk rock band in South Africa in the late 1970s that emerged from a series of jam sessions in an underground commune. They were created in protest of the apartheid regime. They were South Africa's first multiracia ...
_was_routinely_censored_and_even_banned_for_songs_like_"International_News,"_which_challenged_the_South_African_government's_refusal_to_acknowledge_the_racial_and_political_conflict_in_the_country._National_Wake_guitarist_Ivan_Kadey_attributes_the_punk_scene's_ability_to_persevere_despite_the_legal_challenges_of_multi-racial_mixing_to_punk_subculture's_DIY_ethic_ "Do_it_yourself"_("DIY")_is_the_method_of_building,__modifying,_or_repairing_things_by_oneself_without_the_direct_aid_of_professionals_or_certified_experts._Academic_research_has_described_DIY_as_behaviors_where_"individuals_use__raw_and_sem_...
_and_
anti-establishment An anti-establishment view or belief is one which stands in opposition to the conventional social, political, and economic principles of a society. The term was first used in the modern sense in 1958, by the British magazine ''New Statesman'' ...
_attitude. In_post-apartheid_South_Africa,_punk_attracted_a_greater_number_of_white_middle-class_males_than_the_more_diverse_makeup_of_the_subculture_during_the_apartheid_era._
Thabo_Mbeki Thabo Mvuyelwa Mbeki KStJ (; born 18 June 1942) is a South African politician who was the second president of South Africa from 14 June 1999 to 24 September 2008, when he resigned at the request of his party, the African National Congress (ANC ...
's_ African_Renaissance_movement_has_complicated_the_position_of_white_South_Africans_in_contemporary_society._Punk_provides_young_white_men_the_opportunity_to_explore_and_express_their_minority_identity._Cape_Town_band_
Hog_Hoggidy_Hog Hog Hoggidy Hog was a band from Cape Town, South Africa. The band blended a mixture of Punk rock, punk, ska and many other influences, including traditional African music to create an original sound, sometimes referred to as ''Porkrock''. The ban ...
_sings_of_the_strange_status_of_white_Africans: :''It's_my_home_it's_where_I'll_stay_and_where_I_belong,'' :''I_didn't_choose_to_be_here_I_was_born_I_might_seem_out_of_place'' :''but_everything_I_hold_dear_is_under_the_African_sun.'' Post-apartheid_punk_subculture_continues_to_be_active_in_South_African_politics,_organising_a_2000_festival_called_Punks_Against_Racism_at_Thrashers_Statepark_in_
Pretoria Pretoria () is South Africa's administrative capital, serving as the seat of the executive branch of government, and as the host to all foreign embassies to South Africa. Pretoria straddles the Apies River and extends eastward into the foot ...
._Rather_than_the_sense_of_despondency_and_fatalism_that_characterised_1970s_British_punk_subculture,_the_politically_engaged_South_African_scene_is_more_positive_about_the_future_of_South_Africa.


_Peru

In_Peru_punk_traces_its_roots_to_the_band_
Los_Saicos Los Saicos is a garage rock band formed in 1964 in Lima, Peru. Their use of fast tempos, screamed vocals and aggressive riffing has led some publication to retrospectively credit them as pioneering punk rock. In a short amount of time during th ...
,_a_Lima_group_that_played_the_unique_blend_of_garage_and_break_dance_music_that_would_later_be_labeled_punk_as_early_as_the_1960s._The_early_activity_of_Los_Saicos_has_led_many_to_claim_that_punk_originated_in_Lima_instead_of_the_UK,_as_is_typically_assumed._Though_their_claim_to_be_the_first_punk_band_in_the_world_can_be_disputed,_Los_Saicos_were_undoubtedly_the_first_in_Latin_America_and_released_their_first_single_in_1965._The_group_played_to_full_houses_and_made_frequent_television_appearances_throughout_the_1960s._Throughout_the_1970s,_the_band_was_completely_forgotten._Years_later,_a_plaque_that_declares_"here_the_global_punk-rock_movement_was_born"_was_placed_at_the_corner_of_Miguel_Iglesias_and_Julio_C._Tello_Streets_in_Lima. By_the_1980s_the_punk_scene_in_Peru_was_highly_active._Peruvian_punks_call_themselves_''subtes''_and_appropriate_the_subversive_implications_of_the_English_term_"underground"_through_the_Spanish_term_''subterraneo''_(literally,_subterranean)._In_the_1980s_and_1990s_subtes_made_almost_exclusive_use_of_cassette_recording_as_a_means_of_circulating_music_without_participating_in_formal_intellectual_property_and_musical_production_industries._The_current_scene_relies_on_digital_distribution_and_assumes_similar_anti-establishment_practices._Like_many_punk_subcultures,_subtes_explicitly_oppose_the_Peruvian_state_and_advocate_instead_an_anarchic_resistance_that_challenges_the_political_and_mainstream_cultural_establishment.


_Cuba

A_punk_subculture_originated_in_
Cuba Cuba ( , ), officially the Republic of Cuba ( es, República de Cuba, links=no ), is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the northern Caribbea ...
_in_the_1980s,_referred_to_as_
Los_Frikis Los Frikis or the Frikis is a Cuban punk subculture that originated in the 1980s. As Cuban radio stations rarely played rock music, Frikis often listened to music by picking up radio frequencies from stations in nearby Florida. While many Frikas i ...
._As_Cuban_radio_stations_rarely_played_rock_music,_Frikis_often_listened_to_music_by_picking_up_radio_frequencies_from_stations_in_nearby_Florida._While_many_Frikas_in_the_early-1990s_entered_AIDS_clinics_by_knowingly_injecting_HIV-positive_blood_into_them,_others_began_congregating_at_''El_patio_de_María'',_a_community_centre_in_
Havana Havana (; Spanish: ''La Habana'' ) is the capital and largest city of Cuba. The heart of the La Habana Province, Havana is the country's main port and commercial center.
_that_was_one_of_the_few_venues_in_the_city_that_allowed_rock_bands_to_play._Some_Frikis_also_participate_in_ squatting_as_an_act_of_political_defiance. In_its_beginning,_the_subculture_was_seen_as_a_threat_to_the_
collectivism Collectivism may refer to: * Bureaucratic collectivism, a theory of class society whichto describe the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin * Collectivist anarchism, a socialist doctrine in which the workers own and manage the production * Collectivis ...
_of_Cuban_society,_leading_to_Frikis_becoming_victims_of_discrimination_and_ police_brutality._According_to_the_
New_Times_Broward-Palm_Beach ''New Times Broward-Palm Beach'' is a news website that until 2016 also published a weekly print newspaper; it is part of the Voice Media Group chain. The original paper split off from the ''Miami New Times'' in 1997, under the auspices of ...
_some_Frikis_were_"rejected_by_family_and_often_jailed_or_fined_by_the_government",_the_1980s_Friki_woman_Yoandra_Cardoso,_however,_has_that_argued_that_much_of_the_response_was_verbal_harassment_from_law_enforcement._Dionisio_Arce,_lead_vocalist_of_Cuban_ heavy_metal_band_Zeus_spent_six_years_in_prison_due_to_his_part_in_the_Frikis._Some_schools_would_forcibly_shave_the_heads_of_young_Frikis_as_a_form_of_punishment.


_See_also


_References


_Bibliography

*_ *_ *_ *_ *_ * *_


__Further_reading_

*_ *_Savage,_Jon._''England's_Dreaming:_The_Sex_Pistols_and_Punk_Rock''._ Faber_and_Faber,_1991._


_External_links

*_ {{Authority_control * 1970s_in_the_United_Kingdom Australian_culture Motorcycling_subculture Music_and_politics Musical_subcultures Punk Stereotypes Youth_culture_in_the_United_Kingdomhtml" "title="Punk]. Retrieved 18 April 2009. The punk subculture influenced other
underground music Underground music is music with practices perceived as outside, or somehow opposed to, mainstream popular music culture. Underground music is intimately tied to popular music culture as a whole, so there are important tensions within underground ...
scenes such as
alternative rock Alternative rock, or alt-rock, is a category of rock music that emerged from the independent music underground of the 1970s and became widely popular in the 1990s. "Alternative" refers to the genre's distinction from Popular culture, mainstre ...
,
indie music Independent music (also commonly known as indie music or simply indie) is music that is produced independently from commercial record labels or their subsidiaries, a process that may include an autonomous, do-it-yourself approach to recording a ...
,
crossover thrash Crossover thrash (often abbreviated to crossover) is a fusion genre of thrash metal and hardcore punk. The genre lies on a continuum between heavy metal and hardcore punk. Other genres on the same continuum, such as metalcore and grindcore, ...
, and the extreme subgenres of heavy metal (mainly
thrash metal Thrash metal (or simply thrash) is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music characterized by its overall aggression and often fast tempo.Kahn-Harris, Keith, ''Extreme Metal: Music and Culture on the Edge'', pp. 2–3, 9. Oxford: Berg, 2007, . ...
,
death metal Death metal is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music. It typically employs heavily distorted and low-tuned guitars, played with techniques such as palm muting and tremolo picking; deep growling vocals; aggressive, powerful drumming, feat ...
,
speed metal Speed metal is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music that originated in the late 1970s from new wave of British heavy metal (NWOBHM) roots.K. Kahn-Harris, ''Extreme Metal: Music and Culture on the Edge'' (Berg Publishers, 2007), , p. 31. It ...
, and the
NWOBHM The new wave of British heavy metal (commonly abbreviated as NWOBHM) was a nationwide musical movement that started in England in the mid-1970s and achieved international attention by the early 1980s. Journalist Geoff Barton coined the term ...
). A new movement in the United States became visible in the early and mid-1990s that sought to revive the punk movement, doing away with some of the trappings of hardcore.


Music

The punk subculture is centered on a loud, aggressive genre of rock music called punk rock, usually played by bands consisting of a vocalist, one or two electric guitarists, an electric bassist, and a drummer. In some bands, the musicians contribute backup vocals, which typically consist of shouted slogans, choruses, or football-style chants. While most punk rock uses distorted guitars and noisy drumming sounds derived from 1960s
garage rock Garage rock (sometimes called garage punk or 60s punk) is a raw and energetic style of rock and roll that flourished in the mid-1960s, most notably in the United States and Canada, and has experienced a series of subsequent revivals. The sty ...
and 1970s pub rock, some punk bands incorporate elements from other subgenres, such as surf rock,
rockabilly Rockabilly is one of the earliest styles of rock and roll music. It dates back to the early 1950s in the United States, especially the South. As a genre it blends the sound of Western musical styles such as country with that of rhythm and blu ...
, or
reggae Reggae () is a music genre that originated in Jamaica in the late 1960s. The term also denotes the modern popular music of Jamaica and its diaspora. A 1968 single by Toots and the Maytals, " Do the Reggay" was the first popular song to use ...
. Most punk rock songs are short, have simple and somewhat basic arrangements using relatively few chords, and typically have lyrics that express punk ideologies and values, although some punk lyrics are about lighter topics such as partying or romantic relationships. Different punk subcultures often distinguish themselves by having a unique style of punk rock, although not every style of punk rock has its own associated subculture. The earliest form of music to be called "punk rock" was 1960s
garage rock Garage rock (sometimes called garage punk or 60s punk) is a raw and energetic style of rock and roll that flourished in the mid-1960s, most notably in the United States and Canada, and has experienced a series of subsequent revivals. The sty ...
, and the term was applied to the genre retroactively by influential rock critics in the early 1970s. In the late 1960s, music now referred to as
protopunk Proto-punk (or protopunk) is rock music played mostly by garage bands from the 1960s to mid-1970s that foreshadowed the punk rock movement. The phrase is a retrospective label; the musicians involved were generally not originally associated wi ...
originated as a garage rock revival in the northeastern United States. "Protopunk"from Allmusic.com The first distinct music scene to claim the ''punk'' label appeared in New York City between 1974 and 1976.Harrington, Joe S. ''Sonic Cool: The Life & Death of Rock 'N' Roll''. pp. 324–30. 2002. Hal-Leonard. USA. Around the same time or soon afterward, a punk scene developed in London.Harrington, Joe S. ''Sonic Cool: The Life & Death of Rock 'N' Roll''. pp. 344–50. 2002. Hal-Leonard. USA. Los Angeles subsequently became home to the third major punk scene. These three cities formed the backbone of the burgeoning movement, but there were also other punk scenes in cities such as
Brisbane Brisbane ( ) is the capital and most populous city of the states and territories of Australia, Australian state of Queensland, and the list of cities in Australia by population, third-most populous city in Australia and Oceania, with a populati ...
,
Melbourne Melbourne ( ; Boonwurrung/Woiwurrung: ''Narrm'' or ''Naarm'') is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in both Australia and Oceania. Its name generally refers to a met ...
, and
Sydney Sydney ( ) is the capital city of the state of New South Wales, and the most populous city in both Australia and Oceania. Located on Australia's east coast, the metropolis surrounds Sydney Harbour and extends about towards the Blue Mountain ...
in Australia,
Toronto Toronto ( ; or ) is the capital city of the Canadian province of Ontario. With a recorded population of 2,794,356 in 2021, it is the most populous city in Canada and the fourth most populous city in North America. The city is the ancho ...
,
Vancouver Vancouver ( ) is a major city in western Canada, located in the Lower Mainland region of British Columbia. As the List of cities in British Columbia, most populous city in the province, the 2021 Canadian census recorded 662,248 people in the ...
, and
Montreal Montreal ( ; officially Montréal, ) is the List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population, second-most populous city in Canada and List of towns in Quebec, most populous city in the Provinces and territories of Canada, Canadian ...
in Canada, and
Boston Boston (), officially the City of Boston, is the state capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, as well as the cultural and financial center of the New England region of the United States. It is the 24th- mo ...
and San Francisco in the United States. The punk subculture advocates a do-it-yourself (DIY) ethic. During the subculture's infancy members were almost all from a lower economic class, and had become tired of the affluence that was associated with popular rock music at the time. Punks would publish their own music or sign with small independent labels, in hopes to combat what they saw as a money-hungry music industry. The DIY ethic is still popular with punks. The New York City punk rock scene arose from a subcultural underground promoted by artists, reporters, musicians, and a wide variety of non-mainstream enthusiasts.
The Velvet Underground The Velvet Underground was an American rock band formed in New York City in 1964. The original line-up consisted of singer/guitarist Lou Reed, multi-instrumentalist John Cale, guitarist Sterling Morrison, and drummer Angus MacLise. MacLise ...
's harsh and experimental yet often melodic sound in the mid to late-1960s, much of it relating to transgressive media work by visual artist
Andy Warhol Andy Warhol (; born Andrew Warhola Jr.; August 6, 1928 – February 22, 1987) was an American visual artist, film director, and producer who was a leading figure in the Art movement, visual art movement known as pop art. His works explore th ...
, is credited for influencing 1970s bands such as the New York Dolls,
The Stooges The Stooges, originally billed as the Psychedelic Stooges, also known as Iggy and the Stooges, was an American rock band formed in Ann Arbor, Michigan, in 1967 by singer Iggy Pop, guitarist Ron Asheton, drummer Scott Asheton, and bassist Da ...
, and the Ramones. Early New York City punk bands were often short-lived, in part due to widespread use of
recreational drugs Recreation is an activity of leisure, leisure being discretionary time. The "need to do something for recreation" is an essential element of human biology and psychology. Recreational activities are often done for enjoyment, amusement, or pleasur ...
, promiscuous sex, and sometimes violent power struggles, but the relative popularity of the music led to the evolution of punk into a movement and lifestyle.


Ideologies

Punk political ideologies are mostly concerned with individual freedom and
anti-establishment An anti-establishment view or belief is one which stands in opposition to the conventional social, political, and economic principles of a society. The term was first used in the modern sense in 1958, by the British magazine ''New Statesman'' ...
views. Common punk viewpoints include
individual liberty Civil liberties are guarantees and freedoms that governments commit not to abridge, either by constitution, legislation, or judicial interpretation, without due process. Though the scope of the term differs between countries, civil liberties may ...
, anti-authoritarianism, a
DIY ethic "Do it yourself" ("DIY") is the method of building, modifying, or repairing things by oneself without the direct aid of professionals or certified experts. Academic research has described DIY as behaviors where "individuals use raw and sem ...
, non-conformity, anti-
corporatism Corporatism is a collectivist political ideology which advocates the organization of society by corporate groups, such as agricultural, labour, military, business, scientific, or guild associations, on the basis of their common interests. The ...
, anti-government, direct action, and not "
selling out "Selling out", or "sold out" in the past tense, is a common expression for the compromising of a person's integrity, morality, authenticity, or principles by forgoing the long-term benefits of the collective or group in exchange for personal ga ...
". Some groups and individuals that try to self-identify as being a part of the punk subculture hold pro-Nazi or Fascist views, however, these Nazi/Fascist groups are rejected by almost all of the punk subculture. The belief that such views are opposed to the original ethos of the punk subculture, and its history, has led to internal conflicts and an active push against such views being considered part of punk subculture at all. Two examples of this are an incident during the 2016 American Music Awards, where the band Green Day chanted anti-racist and anti-fascist messages, and an incident at a show by the Dropkick Murphys, when bassist and singer Ken Casey tackled an individual for giving a Nazi-style salute and later stated that Nazis are not welcome at a Dropkick Murphys show. Band member Tim Brennan later reaffirmed this sentiment. The song "
Nazi Punks Fuck Off "Nazi Punks Fuck Off" is the fifth single by Dead Kennedys. It was released in 1981 on Alternative Tentacles with "Moral Majority" as the B-side. Both are from the '' In God We Trust, Inc.'' EP, although the EP version is a different recordi ...
" by hardcore punk band
Dead Kennedys Dead Kennedys are an American punk rock band that formed in San Francisco, California, in 1978. The band was one of the defining punk bands during its initial eight-year run. Dead Kennedys' lyrics were usually political in nature, satirizing p ...
is a standout example. Early British punks expressed
nihilistic Nihilism (; ) is a philosophy, or family of views within philosophy, that rejects generally accepted or fundamental aspects of human existence, such as objective truth, knowledge, morality, values, or meaning of life, meaning. The term was pop ...
and anarchist views with the slogan ''No Future'', which came from the Sex Pistols song "
God Save the Queen "God Save the King" is the national and/or royal anthem of the United Kingdom, most of the Commonwealth realms, their territories, and the British Crown Dependencies. The author of the tune is unknown and it may originate in plainchant, bu ...
". In the United States, punks had a different approach to nihilism which was less anarchistic than the British punks. Punk nihilism was expressed in the use of "harder, more self-destructive, consciousness-obliterating substances like heroin, or methamphetamine". The issue of authenticity is important in the punk subculture—the pejorative term "
poseur A poseur is someone who poses for effect, or behaves affectedly, who affects a particular attitude, character or manner to impress others, or who pretends to belong to a particular group.
" is applied to those who associate with punk and adopt its stylistic attributes but are deemed not to share or understand the underlying values or philosophy.


Fashion

Early punk fashion adapted everyday objects for aesthetic effect: ripped clothing was held together by safety pins or wrapped with tape; ordinary clothing was customised by embellishing it with marker or adorning it with paint; a black
bin liner A bin bag, rubbish bag (British English), garbage bag, bin liner, trash bag (American English) or refuse sack is a disposable bag used to contain solid waste. Such bags are useful to line the insides of waste containers to prevent the insides ...
became a dress, shirt or skirt; safety pins and razor blades were used as jewellery. Also popular have been leather, rubber, and PVC clothing that is often associated with transgressive sexuality, like
BDSM BDSM is a variety of often erotic practices or roleplaying involving bondage, discipline, dominance and submission, sadomasochism, and other related interpersonal dynamics. Given the wide range of practices, some of which may be engaged ...
and S&M. A designer associated with early UK punk fashion was
Vivienne Westwood Dame Vivienne Isabel Westwood (née Swire; born 8 April 1941) is an English fashion designer and businesswoman, largely responsible for bringing modern punk and new wave fashions into the mainstream. Westwood came to public notice when she m ...
, who made clothes for Malcolm McLaren's boutique in the
King's Road King's Road or Kings Road (or sometimes the King's Road, especially when it was the king's private road until 1830, or as a colloquialism by middle/upper class London residents), is a major street stretching through Chelsea and Fulham, both ...
, which became famous as "
SEX Sex is the trait that determines whether a sexually reproducing animal or plant produces male or female gametes. Male plants and animals produce smaller mobile gametes (spermatozoa, sperm, pollen), while females produce larger ones ( ova, of ...
". Many punks wear tight "drainpipe" jeans, plaid/tartan trousers, kilts or skirts, T-shirts, leather jackets (often decorated with painted band logos, pins and buttons, and metal studs or spikes), and footwear such as high-cut Chuck Taylors,
trainers Sneakers (also called trainers, athletic shoes, tennis shoes, gym shoes, kicks, sport shoes, flats, running shoes, or runners) are shoes primarily designed for sports or other forms of physical exercise, but which are now also widely used fo ...
,
skate shoes Skate or Skates may refer to: Fish *Skate (fish), several genera of fish belonging to the family Rajidae * Pygmy skates, several genera of fish belonging to the family Gurgesiellidae * Smooth skates or leg skates, several genera of fish belongin ...
,
brothel creeper Brothel creepers, sometimes shortened to creepers, are a style of shoe that has thick crepe soles, often in combination with suede uppers. This style of footwear became fashionable in the years following World War II, seeing resurgences of popul ...
s, Dr. Martens boots, and army boots. Early punks occasionally wore clothes displaying a
swastika The swastika (卐 or 卍) is an ancient religious and cultural symbol, predominantly in various Eurasian, as well as some African and American cultures, now also widely recognized for its appropriation by the Nazi Party and by neo-Nazis. It ...
for shock value, but most contemporary punks are staunchly anti-racist and are more likely to wear a crossed-out swastika symbol than a pro-Nazi symbol. Some punks cut their hair into mohawks or other dramatic shapes, style it to stand in spikes, and colour it with vibrant, unnatural hues. Some punks are ''anti-fashion'', arguing that punk should be defined by music or ideology. This is most common in the post-1980s US
hardcore punk Hardcore punk (also known as simply hardcore) is a punk rock music genre and subculture that originated in the late 1970s. It is generally faster, harder, and more aggressive than other forms of punk rock. Its roots can be traced to earlier punk ...
scene, where members of the subculture often dressed in plain T-shirts and jeans, rather than the more elaborate outfits and spiked, dyed hair of their British counterparts. Many groups adopt a look based on street clothes and working-class outfits. Hardcore punk fans adopted a ''dressed-down'' style of T-shirts, jeans, combat boots or trainers, and
crewcut A crew cut is a type of haircut in which the upright hair on the top of the head is cut relatively short, graduated in length from the longest hair that forms a short pomp ( pompadour) at the front hairline to the shortest at the back of the crow ...
s. Women in the hardcore scene typically wore army trousers, band T-shirts, and hooded jumpers. The style of the 1980s hardcore scene contrasted with the more provocative fashion styles of late 1970s punk rockers (elaborate hairdos, torn clothes, patches, safety pins, studs, spikes, etc.). Circle Jerks frontman
Keith Morris Keith Morris (born September 18, 1955) is an American singer and songwriter known for his role as frontman of the hardcore punk bands Black Flag, Circle Jerks, and Off!. Born and raised in Hermosa Beach, California, he formed Black Flag at the ...
described early hardcore fashion as "the...punk scene was basically based on English fashion. But we had nothing to do with that. Black Flag and the Circle Jerks were so far from that. We looked like the kid who worked at the gas station or
submarine A submarine (or sub) is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability. The term is also sometimes used historically or colloquially to refer to remotely op ...
shop." Henry Rollins echoes Morris' point, stating that for him getting dressed up meant putting on a black shirt and some dark pants; Rollins viewed an interest in fashion as being a distraction. Jimmy Gestapo from Murphy's Law describes his own transition from dressing in a punk style (spiked hair and a
bondage belt A body belt is any waist belt which has D-rings or other attachment points. The belts can be used as medical restraints in institutions for bed and wheelchair restraints, and for safety in activities such as abseiling or construction work. When ...
) to adopting a hardcore style (i.e. boots and a shaved head) as being based on a need for more functional clothing. A punk scholar states that "hardcore kids do not look like punks", since hardcore scene members wore basic clothing and short haircuts, in contrast to the "embellished leather jackets and pants" worn in the punk scene. In contrast to Morris' and Rollins' views, another punk scholar claims that the standard hardcore punk clothing and styles included torn jeans, leather jackets, spiked armbands and dog collars, mohawk hairstyles, and DIY ornamentation of clothes with studs, painted band names, political statements, and patches. Yet another punk scholar describes the look that was common in the San Francisco hardcore scene as consisting of biker-style leather jackets, chains, studded wristbands, pierced noses and multiple piercings, painted or tattooed statements (e.g. an anarchy symbol), and hairstyles ranging from military-style haircuts dyed black or blonde to mohawks and shaved heads. The
Metropolitan Museum of Art The Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York City, colloquially "the Met", is the largest art museum in the Americas. Its permanent collection contains over two million works, divided among 17 curatorial departments. The main building at 1000 ...
in 2013 hosted a comprehensive exhibit, ''PUNK: Chaos to Couture'', that examined the techniques of hardware, distress, and re-purposing in punk fashion.


Gender and gender expression

In the United Kingdom, the advent of
punk Punk or punks may refer to: Genres, subculture, and related aspects * Punk rock, a music genre originating in the 1970s associated with various subgenres * Punk subculture, a subculture associated with punk rock, or aspects of the subculture s ...
in the late 1970s with its "anyone can do it" ethos led to women making significant contributions. In contrast to the rock music and heavy metal scenes of the 1970s, which were dominated by men, the anarchic, counter-cultural mindset of the punk scene in mid- and late 1970s encouraged women to participate. "That was the beauty of the punk thing," Chrissie Hynde later said. " exualdiscrimination didn't exist in that scene." This participation played a role in the historical development of punk music, especially in the U.S. and U.K. at that time, and continues to influence and enable future generations. Rock historian Helen Reddington states that the popular image of young punk women musicians as focused on the fashion aspects of the scene (fishnet stockings, spiky blond hair, etc.) was stereotypical. She states that many, if not most women punks were more interested in the ideology and socio-political implications, rather than the fashion. Music historian Caroline Coon contends that before punk, women in rock music were virtually invisible; in contrast, in punk, she argues " would be possible to write the whole history of punk music without mentioning any male bands at all – and I think a lot of eoplewould find that very surprising."
Johnny Rotten John Joseph Lydon (; born 31 January 1956), also known by his former stage name Johnny Rotten, is an English singer and songwriter. He was the lead singer of the late-1970s punk band the Sex Pistols, which lasted from 1975 until 1978, and aga ...
wrote that 'During the Pistols era, women were out there playing with the men, taking us on in equal terms ... It wasn't combative, but compatible.' Women were involved in bands such as
The Runaways The Runaways were an all-female American rock band who recorded and performed from 1975 to 1979. The band released four studio albums and one live album during its run. Among their best-known songs are " Cherry Bomb", "Hollywood", "Queens of ...
,
The Slits The Slits were a punk and post-punk band based in London, formed there in 1976 by members of the groups the Flowers of Romance and the Castrators. The group's early line-up consisted of Ari Up (Ariane Forster) and Palmolive (a.k.a. Paloma R ...
,
The Raincoats The Raincoats are a British experimental post-punk band. Ana da Silva (vocals, guitar) and Gina Birch (vocals, bass) formed the group in 1977 while they were students at Hornsey College of Art in London. Signed to the label Rough Trade, the ...
,
Mo-dettes Mo-dettes were an English all-female post-punk band, formed in 1979 by guitarist Kate Korris, an original member of The Slits and brief member of The Raincoats, and bassist Jane Crockford, former member of Bank of Dresden. Ramona Carlier (vocal ...
,
Dolly Mixture Dolly mixture is a British confection, consisting of a variety of multi-coloured fondant shapes, such as cubes and cylinders with subtle flavourings, and sugar-coated jellies. The origin of the name is uncertain. It has been passed down throu ...
, and The Innocents. Others take issue with the notion of equal recognition, such as guitarist
Viv Albertine Viviane Katrina Louise Albertine (born 1 December 1954) is an Australian-born British musician, singer, songwriter and writer. She is best known as the guitarist for the punk band the Slits from 1977 until 1982, with whom she recorded two studio ...
, who stated that "the A&R men, the bouncers, the sound mixers, no one took us seriously. So, no, we got no respect anywhere we went. People just didn't want us around." The anti-establishment stance of punk opened the space for women who were treated like outsiders in a male-dominated industry. Sonic Youth's
Kim Gordon Kim Althea Gordon (born April 28, 1953) is an American musician, singer and songwriter, best known as the bassist, guitarist, and vocalist of alternative rock band Sonic Youth. Born in Rochester, New York, she was raised in Los Angeles, Califor ...
states, "I think women are natural anarchists, because you're always operating in a male framework."


Body and appearance

For some punks, the body was a symbol of opposition, a political statement expressing disgust of all that was "normal" and socially accepted. The idea was to make others outside of the subculture question their own views, which made gender presentation and gender identity a popular factor to be played with. In some ways, punk helped to tear apart the normalised view of gender as a dichotomy. There was a notable amount of cross-dressing in the punk scene; it was not unusual to see men wearing ripped-up skirts, fishnet tights, and excessive makeup, or to see women with shaved heads wearing oversized plaid shirts and jean jackets and heavy combat boots. Punk created a new cultural space for androgyny and all kinds of gender expression. In trying to reject societal norms, punk embraced one societal norm by deciding that strength and anger was best expressed through masculinity, defining masculine as the "default", where gender did not exist or had no meaning. However, the main reasoning behind this argument equates femininity with popular conceptions of beauty. Everything that was normally supposed to be hidden was brought to the front, both literally and figuratively. This could mean anything from wearing bras and underwear on top of clothing to wearing nothing but a bra and underwear. Although that act can seem sexualised, to punks it was just a way of self-expression. Punk seemed to allow people to sexualize themselves and still be taken seriously. The nature of punk allowed many to create a non-gender-conforming style. Punks could be free to use femininity or masculinity to make what they were doing even more shocking to their audience. It became popular for some punks to accentuate societal norms. At one concert,
Donita Sparks Donita Sparks (born April 8, 1963) is an American singer, guitarist, and songwriter most notable for being the co-founder of the band L7. Sparks also initiated, performed, and released original material with her solo project, the band Donita S ...
, lead singer of the band L7, pulled out her tampon and threw it into the audience.


Riot grrrl

Riot grrrl is an
underground Underground most commonly refers to: * Subterranea (geography), the regions beneath the surface of the Earth Underground may also refer to: Places * The Underground (Boston), a music club in the Allston neighborhood of Boston * The Underground ...
feminist
hardcore punk Hardcore punk (also known as simply hardcore) is a punk rock music genre and subculture that originated in the late 1970s. It is generally faster, harder, and more aggressive than other forms of punk rock. Its roots can be traced to earlier punk ...
movement that originated in the early 1990s in Washington, D.C., and the
Pacific Northwest The Pacific Northwest (sometimes Cascadia, or simply abbreviated as PNW) is a geographic region in western North America bounded by its coastal waters of the Pacific Ocean to the west and, loosely, by the Rocky Mountains to the east. Tho ...
, especially
Olympia, Washington Olympia is the capital of the U.S. state of Washington and the county seat and largest city of Thurston County. It is southwest of the state's most populous city, Seattle, and is a cultural center of the southern Puget Sound region. Europea ...
. It is often associated with
third-wave feminism Third-wave feminism is an iteration of the feminist movement that began in the early 1990s, prominent in the decades prior to the fourth wave. Grounded in the civil-rights advances of the second wave, Gen X and early Gen Y generations third-w ...
, which is sometimes seen as its starting point. It has also been described as a musical genre that came out of indie rock, with the punk scene serving as an inspiration for a musical movement in which women could express themselves in the same way men had been doing for the past several years.


Visual art

Punk aesthetics determine the type of art punks enjoy, usually with
underground Underground most commonly refers to: * Subterranea (geography), the regions beneath the surface of the Earth Underground may also refer to: Places * The Underground (Boston), a music club in the Allston neighborhood of Boston * The Underground ...
, minimalistic,
iconoclastic Iconoclasm (from Ancient Greek, Greek: grc, wikt:εἰκών, εἰκών, lit=figure, icon, translit=eikṓn, label=none + grc, wikt:κλάω, κλάω, lit=to break, translit=kláō, label=none)From grc, wikt:εἰκών, εἰκών + wi ...
, and satirical sensibilities. Punk artwork graces
album cover An album cover (also referred to as album art) is the front packaging art of a commercially released studio album or other audio recordings. The term can refer to either the printed paperboard covers typically used to package sets of and 78-r ...
s, flyers for concerts, and
punk zine A punk zine (or punkzine) is a zine related to the punk subculture and hardcore punk music genre. Often primitively or casually produced, they feature punk literature, such as social commentary, punk poetry, news, gossip, music reviews and arti ...
s. Usually straightforward with clear messages, punk art is often concerned with political issues such as
social injustice Social justice is justice in terms of the distribution of wealth, opportunities, and privileges within a society. In Western and Asian cultures, the concept of social justice has often referred to the process of ensuring that individuals f ...
and economic disparity. The use of images of suffering to shock and create feelings of empathy in the viewer is common. Alternatively, punk artwork may contain images of selfishness, stupidity, or apathy to provoke contempt in the viewer. Much of the earlier artwork was black and white, because it was distributed in
zines A zine ( ; short for ''magazine'' or ''fanzine'') is a small-circulation self-published work of original or appropriated texts and images, usually reproduced via a copy machine. Zines are the product of either a single person or of a very smal ...
and reproduced by photocopying at work, school, or at copy shops. Punk art also uses the mass production aesthetic of
Andy Warhol Andy Warhol (; born Andrew Warhola Jr.; August 6, 1928 – February 22, 1987) was an American visual artist, film director, and producer who was a leading figure in the Art movement, visual art movement known as pop art. His works explore th ...
's Factory studio. Punk played a hand in the revival of stencil art, spearheaded by
Crass Crass were an English art collective and punk rock band formed in Epping, Essex in 1977, who promoted anarchism as a political ideology, a lifestylism, way of life, and a resistance movement. Crass popularised the anarcho-punk movement of the ...
. The Situationist International, Situationists also influenced the look of punk art, particularly that of the Sex Pistols created by Jamie Reid. Punk art often uses collage, exemplified by the art of Jamie Reid, Crass, The Clash,
Dead Kennedys Dead Kennedys are an American punk rock band that formed in San Francisco, California, in 1978. The band was one of the defining punk bands during its initial eight-year run. Dead Kennedys' lyrics were usually political in nature, satirizing p ...
, and Winston Smith (artist), Winston Smith. John Holmstrom was a punk cartoonist who created work for the Ramones and ''Punk (magazine), Punk''.


Dance

Two dance styles associated with punk are pogo (dance), pogo dancing and
moshing Moshing (also known as slam dancing or simply slamming) is an extreme style of dancing in which participants push or slam into each other, typically performed to "aggressive" live music such as heavy metal and punk rock. Moshing usually happen ...
. The pogo is a dance in which the dancers jump up and down, while either remaining on the spot or moving around; the dance takes its name from its resemblance to the use of a pogo stick, especially in a common version of the dance, where an individual keeps their torso stiff, their arms rigid, and their legs close together. Pogo dancing is closely associated with punk rock and is a precursor to moshing. Moshing or slamdancing is a style of dance where participants push or slam into each other, typically during a live music show. It is usually associated with "aggressive" music genres, such as hardcore punk and
thrash metal Thrash metal (or simply thrash) is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music characterized by its overall aggression and often fast tempo.Kahn-Harris, Keith, ''Extreme Metal: Music and Culture on the Edge'', pp. 2–3, 9. Oxford: Berg, 2007, . ...
. Stage diving and crowd surfing were originally associated with
protopunk Proto-punk (or protopunk) is rock music played mostly by garage bands from the 1960s to mid-1970s that foreshadowed the punk rock movement. The phrase is a retrospective label; the musicians involved were generally not originally associated wi ...
bands such as The Stooges, and have appeared at punk, metal, and rock concerts. Ska punk promoted an updated version of skank (dance), skanking. Hardcore dancing is a later development influenced by all of the above-mentioned styles. Psychobillies prefer to "wreck", a form of slam dancing that involves people punching each other in the chest and arms as they move around the circle pit.


Literature

Punk has generated a considerable amount of poetry and
prose Prose is a form of written or spoken language that follows the natural flow of speech, uses a language's ordinary grammatical structures, or follows the conventions of formal academic writing. It differs from most traditional poetry, where the ...
. Punk has its own
underground press The terms underground press or clandestine press refer to periodicals and publications that are produced without official approval, illegally or against the wishes of a dominant (governmental, religious, or institutional) group. In specific rec ...
in the form of
punk zine A punk zine (or punkzine) is a zine related to the punk subculture and hardcore punk music genre. Often primitively or casually produced, they feature punk literature, such as social commentary, punk poetry, news, gossip, music reviews and arti ...
s, which feature news, gossip, cultural criticism, and interviews. Some zines take the form of
perzine Perzines are a genre of zines; the "per" meaning "personal". Although most zines could be considered personal in that they represent the opinionated work of one person, this term describes zines that are written about one's own personal experienc ...
s. Important punk zines include ''Maximum RocknRoll'', ''Punk Planet'', ''No Cure'', ''
Cometbus Aaron Elliott (born May 20, 1968), better known as Aaron Cometbus, is an American musician, songwriter, roadie, and magazine editor, best known as the creator of the punk zine ''Cometbus''. Career Born in Berkeley, California, Cometbus started ...
'', ''Flipside (fanzine), Flipside'', and ''RE/Search, Search & Destroy''. Several novels, biographies, autobiographies, and comic books have been written about punk. ''Love and Rockets (comics), Love and Rockets'' is a comic with a plot involving the Los Angeles punk scene. Just as zines played an important role in spreading information in the punk era (e.g. British fanzines like Mark Perry's ''Sniffin Glue'' and Shane MacGowan's ''Bondage''), zines also played an important role in the hardcore scene. In the pre-Internet era, zines enabled readers to learn about bands, shows, clubs, and record labels. Zines typically included reviews of shows and records, interviews with bands, letters to the editor, and advertisements for records and labels. Zines were DIY products, "proudly amateur, usually handmade, and always independent", and during the "'90s, zines were the primary way to stay up on punk and hardcore." They were the "blogs, comment sections, and social networks of their day." In the American Midwest, the zine ''Touch and Go'' described the regional hardcore scene from 1979 to 1983. ''We Got Power'' described the LA scene from 1981 to 1984, and included show reviews of and interviews with such bands as Vancouver's D.O.A. (band), D.O.A., the Misfits (band), Misfits, Black Flag, Suicidal Tendencies, and the Circle Jerks. ''My Rules'' was a photo zine that included photos of hardcore shows from across the US. ''In Effect'', which began in 1988, described the New York City scene. Punk poets include: Richard Hell, Jim Carroll, Patti Smith, John Cooper Clarke, Steven Wells, Seething Wells, Raegan Butcher, and Attila the Stockbroker. The Medway Poets performance group included punk musician Billy Childish and had an influence on Tracey Emin. Jim Carroll's autobiographical works are among the first known examples of punk literature. The punk subculture has inspired the
cyberpunk Cyberpunk is a subgenre of science fiction in a dystopian futuristic setting that tends to focus on a "combination of lowlife and high tech", featuring futuristic technological and scientific achievements, such as artificial intelligence and c ...
and steampunk literature genres, and has even contributed (through Iggy Pop) to classical scholarship.


Film

Many punk-themed films have been made. The No Wave Cinema and Remodernist film movements owe much to punk aesthetics. Several famous punk bands have participated in movies, such as the Ramones in ''Rock 'n' Roll High School'', the Sex Pistols in ''The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle'', and Social Distortion in ''Another State of Mind (film), Another State of Mind''. Derek Jarman and Don Letts are notable punk filmmakers. Penelope Spheeris' first instalment of the documentary trilogy "The Decline of Western Civilization" (1981) focuses on the early Los Angeles punk scene through interviews and early concert footage from bands including Black Flag, Circle Jerks, Germs (band), Germs, and Fear (band), Fear. The Decline of Western Civilization III" explores the gutter punk lifestyle in the 1990s. ''Loren Cass'' is another example of the punk subculture represented in film. The Japanese cyberpunk movement has roots in the Japanese punk subculture that arose in the 1970s. The filmmaker Sogo Ishii introduced this subculture to Japanese cinema with his punk films ''Panic High School'' (1978) and ''Crazy Thunder Road'' (1980), which portrayed the rebellion and anarchy associated with punk, and went on to become highly influential in underground film circles. ''Crazy Thunder Road'' in particular was an influential biker film, with a punk biker gang aesthetic that paved the way for Katsuhiro Otomo's manga and
anime is Traditional animation, hand-drawn and computer animation, computer-generated animation originating from Japan. Outside of Japan and in English, ''anime'' refers specifically to animation produced in Japan. However, in Japan and in Japane ...
franchise ''Akira (franchise), Akira'' (1982 debut). Ishii's next film was the frenetic ''Shuffle'' (1981), an unofficial short film adaptation of a manga comic strip by Otomo. The documentary film ''
Afro-Punk Afro-punk (sometimes spelled Afro-Punk, Afropunk or AfroPunk) refers to the participation of African Americans and other Black people in punk and alternative subcultures, especially in the United States. History The term originated from the 200 ...
'' covers the black experience in the punk DIY scene.


Perspectives on drugs and alcohol


Inhalable solvents

"Intoxicative inhalant, [Glue] sniffing was adopted by punks because public perceptions of sniffing fitted in with their self-image. Originally used experimentally and as a cheap high, adult disgust and hostility encouraged punks to use glue sniffing as a way of shocking society." Model airplane glue and contact cement were among the numerous solvents and inhalants used by punks to achieve euphoria and intoxication. Glue was typically inhaled by placing a quantity in a plastic bag and "huffing" (inhaling) the vapour. Liquid solvents were typically inhaled by soaking a rag with the solvent and inhaling the vapour. While users inhale solvents for the intoxicating effects, the practice can be harmful or fatal.


Straight edge

Straight edge is a philosophy of hardcore punk culture, adherents of which refrain from using alcohol, tobacco, and other recreational drugs, in reaction to the excesses of punk subculture. For some, this extends to refraining from engaging in promiscuous sex, following a vegetarian or
vegan Veganism is the practice of abstaining from the use of animal product—particularly in diet—and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. An individual who follows the diet or philosophy is known as a vegan. ...
diet, and not drinking coffee or taking prescribed medicine. The term ''straight edge'' was adopted from the 1981 song "Straight Edge (song), Straight Edge" by the hardcore punk band Minor Threat. Straight edge emerged amid the early-1980s hardcore punk scene. Since then, a wide variety of beliefs and ideas have been associated with the movement, including vegetarianism and animal rights. Ross Haenfler writes that as of the late 1990s, approximately three out of four straight edge participants were vegetarian or vegan. While the commonly expressed aspects of the straight edge subculture have been abstinence from alcohol, nicotine, and illegal drugs, there have been considerable variations on how far to take the interpretations of "abstaining from intoxicants" or "living drug-free". Disagreements often arise as to the primary reasons for living straight edge. Straight edge politics are primarily left-wing and revolutionary but there have been conservative offshoots. In 1999, William Tsitsos wrote that straight edge had gone through three eras since its founding in the early 1980s. Bent edge began as a counter-movement to straight edge by members of the Washington, D.C. hardcore scene who were frustrated by the rigidity and intolerance in the scene. During the youth crew era, which started in the mid-1980s, the influence of music on the straight edge scene was at an all-time high. By the early 1990s, militant straight edge was a well-known part of the wider punk scene. In the early to mid-1990s, straight edge spread from the United States to Northern Europe, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and South America. By the beginning of the 2000s, militant straight edge punks had largely left the broader straight edge culture and movement.


Lifestyle and community

Punks come from all culture and economic classes. Compared to some subcultures, punk ideology is much closer to gender equality. Although the punk subculture is mostly
anti-racist Anti-racism encompasses a range of ideas and political actions which are meant to counter racial prejudice, systemic racism, and the oppression of specific racial groups. Anti-racism is usually structured around conscious efforts and deliberate ...
, it is overwhelmingly white. However, members of other groups (such as African Americans, other black people, Latinos, and Asians) have contributed to the development of the subculture. Substance abuse has sometimes been a part of the punk scene, with the notable exception of the straight edge movement. Violence has also sometimes appeared in the punk subculture, but has been opposed by some subsets of the subculture, such as the pacifist strain
anarcho-punk Anarcho-punk (also known as anarchist punk or peace punk) is ideological subgenre of punk rock that promotes anarchism. Some use the term broadly to refer to any punk music with anarchist lyrical content, which may figure in crust punk, hardcor ...
. Punks often form a local scene, which can have as few as half a dozen members in a small town, or as many as thousands of in a major city. A local scene usually has a small group of dedicated punks surrounded by a more casual periphery. A typical punk scene is made up of punk and hardcore bands, fans who attend concerts, protests, and other events, zine publishers, reviewers, and other writers, visual artists illustrating zines, and creating posters and album covers, show promoters, and people who work at music venues or independent record labels. Squatting plays a role in many punk communities, providing shelter and other forms of support. Squats in abandoned or condemned housing, and communal "punk houses" often provide bands a place to stay while they are touring. There are some punk commune (intentional community), communes, such as Essex's Dial House (Essex, England), Dial House. The Internet has been playing an increasingly large role in punk, specifically in the form of virtual communities and file sharing programs for trading music files.


Authenticity

In the punk and hardcore subcultures, members of the scene are often evaluated in terms of the authenticity (philosophy), authenticity of their commitment to the values or philosophies of the scene, which may range from political beliefs to lifestyle practices. In the punk subculture, the epithet ''
poseur A poseur is someone who poses for effect, or behaves affectedly, who affects a particular attitude, character or manner to impress others, or who pretends to belong to a particular group.
'' (or "poser") is used to describe "a person who habitually pretends to be something [they are] not." The term is used to refer to a person who adopts the dress, speech, and/or mannerisms of a particular subculture, yet who is deemed to not share or understand the values or philosophy of the subculture. While this perceived inauthenticity is viewed with scorn and contempt by members of the subculture, the definition of the term and to whom it should be applied is subjective. An article in ''Drowned in Sound'' argues that 1980s-era "hardcore punk, hardcore is the true spirit of punk", because "after all the poseurs and fashionistas fucked off to the next trend of skinny pink ties with New Romantic haircuts, singing wimpy lyrics", the punk scene consisted only of people "completely dedicated to the
DIY "Do it yourself" ("DIY") is the method of building, modifying, or repairing things by oneself without the direct aid of professionals or certified experts. Academic research has described DIY as behaviors where "individuals use raw and sem ...
ethics". Proto-punk bands such as the Who, the Stooges, the Velvet Underground, Pink Fairies, the Deviants, and Edgar Broughton Band came out of garage-rock during the late 1960s. Usually, white working-class boys are credited for pioneering the genre, however, there were many women (Patti Smith, Siouxsie Sioux) and people of color (the Specials member) who contributed to the original punk sound and aesthetic. Because the original subculture meant to challenge to the mainstream, and punk movement became major it was brought to the mainstream. If punk is commercialized, it is far from street culture. This is the paradox of punk; as a subculture, it must always be evolving to stay out of the mainstream. ''Punk Girls'' written by Liz Ham is a
photo-book A photo book or photobook is a book in which photographs make a significant contribution to the overall content. A photo book is related to and also often used as a coffee table book. Early Early photo books are characterized by their use o ...
featuring 100 portraits of Australian women in the punk subculture, and it was published in 2017 by Manuscript Daily. Discrimination against punk subculture is explored with her photographs in the book; these ''girls'' who are not mainstream, but "beautiful and talented".


Interactions with other subcultures

Some of the first hip hop MCs called themselves punk rockers, and some punk fashions have found their way into hip hop dress and vice versa. Malcolm McLaren played roles in introducing both punk and hip hop to the United Kingdom. Hip hop later influenced some punk and hardcore punk, hardcore bands, such as the Beastie Boys, Hed PE, Blaggers I.T.A., Biohazard (band), Biohazard, E.Town Concrete, The Transplants, and
Refused Refused (also known as the Refused) is a Swedish hardcore punk band originating from Umeå and formed in 1991. Refused is composed of vocalist Dennis Lyxzén, guitarist Kristofer Steen, drummer David Sandström, and bassist Magnus Flagge. G ...
. Other rappers and hip-hop acts were influenced by the subcultures of crust punk and hardcore such as City Morgue. The
skinhead A skinhead is a member of a subculture which originated among working class youths in London, England, in the 1960s and soon spread to other parts of the United Kingdom, with a second working class skinhead movement emerging worldwide in th ...
subculture of the United Kingdom in the late 1960s – which had almost disappeared in the early 1970s – was revived in the late 1970s, partly because of the influence of punk rock, especially the
Oi! Oi! is a subgenre of punk rock that originated in the United Kingdom in the late 1970s. The music and its associated subculture had the goal of bringing together punks, skinheads, and other disaffected working-class youth. The movement was ...
punk subgenre. Conversely,
ska Ska (; ) is a music genre that originated in Jamaica in the late 1950s and was the precursor to rocksteady and reggae. It combined elements of Caribbean mento and calypso with American jazz and rhythm and blues. Ska is characterized by a walki ...
and
reggae Reggae () is a music genre that originated in Jamaica in the late 1960s. The term also denotes the modern popular music of Jamaica and its diaspora. A 1968 single by Toots and the Maytals, " Do the Reggay" was the first popular song to use ...
, popular among Trojan skinhead, traditionalist skinheads, has influenced several punk musicians. Punks and skinheads have had both antagonistic and friendly relationships, depending on the social circumstances, time period, and geographic location. The punk and heavy metal subcultures have shared some similarities since punk's inception. The early 1970s protopunk scene had an influence on the development of heavy metal. Alice Cooper was a forerunner of the fashion and music of both the punk and metal subcultures.
Motörhead Motörhead () were an English rock band formed in London in 1975 by Lemmy (lead vocals, bass), Larry Wallis (guitar) and Lucas Fox (drums). Lemmy was also the primary songwriter and only constant member. The band are often considered a precu ...
, since their first album release in 1977, have enjoyed continued popularity in the punk scene, and their now-deceased frontman Lemmy was a fan of punk rock. Genres such as metalcore, grindcore, and
crossover thrash Crossover thrash (often abbreviated to crossover) is a fusion genre of thrash metal and hardcore punk. The genre lies on a continuum between heavy metal and hardcore punk. Other genres on the same continuum, such as metalcore and grindcore, ...
were greatly influenced by punk rock and heavy metal. The new wave of British heavy metal influenced the UK 82-style of bands like Discharge (band), Discharge, and hardcore was a primary influence on
thrash metal Thrash metal (or simply thrash) is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music characterized by its overall aggression and often fast tempo.Kahn-Harris, Keith, ''Extreme Metal: Music and Culture on the Edge'', pp. 2–3, 9. Oxford: Berg, 2007, . ...
bands such as Metallica and Slayer. The early 1990s grunge subculture was a fusion of punk
anti-fashion Anti-fashion is an umbrella term for various styles of dress which are explicitly contrary to the fashion of the day. Anti-fashion styles may represent an attitude of indifference or may arise from political or practical goals which make fashi ...
ideals and metal-influenced guitar sounds. However, hardcore punk and grunge developed in part as reactions against the heavy metal music that was popular during the 1980s. In punk's heyday, punks faced harassment and attacks from the general public and from members of other subcultures. In the 1980s in the UK, punks were sometimes involved in brawls with Teddy Boy (youth culture), Teddy Boys, greaser (subculture), greasers, Outlaw motorcycle club, bikers, mod (subculture), mods, and members of other subcultures. There was also considerable enmity between Positive punks (known today as goth subculture, goths) and the glamorously dressed New Romantics. In the late 1970s, punks were known to have had confrontations with hippies due to the contrasting ideologies and backlash of the hippie culture. Nevertheless, Penny Rimbaud of the English anarcho-punk band
Crass Crass were an English art collective and punk rock band formed in Epping, Essex in 1977, who promoted anarchism as a political ideology, a lifestylism, way of life, and a resistance movement. Crass popularised the anarcho-punk movement of the ...
said that Crass was formed in memory of his friend, the hippie Wally Hope. Rimbaud also said that Crass were heavily involved with the hippie movement throughout the 1960s and 1970s, with Dial House being established in 1967. Many punks were often critical of Crass for their involvement in the hippie movement. Like Crass, Jello Biafra was influenced by the hippie movement and cited the
yippie The Youth International Party (YIP), whose members were commonly called Yippies, was an American youth-oriented radical and countercultural revolutionary offshoot of the free speech and anti-war movements of the late 1960s. It was founded on ...
s as a key influence on his political activism and thinking, though he did write songs critical of hippies. The industrial music, industrial and
rivethead A rivethead or rivet head is a person associated with the industrial dance music scene. In stark contrast to the original industrial culture, whose performers and heterogeneous audience were sometimes referred to as "industrialists", the rivethe ...
subcultures have had several ties to punk, in terms of music, fashion, and attitude. Power pop music (as defined by groups such as
Badfinger Badfinger were a Welsh rock band formed in Swansea, who were active from the 1960s to the 1980s. Their best-known lineup consisted of Pete Ham (vocals, guitar), Mike Gibbins (drums), Tom Evans (bass), and Joey Molland (guitar). They are rec ...
, Cheap Trick, The Knack, and The Romantics) emerged in mostly the same time frame and geographical area as punk rock, and they shared a great deal musically in terms of playing short songs loud and fast while trying to emphasize catchy feelings. More melodic and pop-influenced punk music has also often been wrapped alongside power pop bands under the general "new wave music" label. A good example of a genre-straddling "power pop punk" band is the popular Northern Ireland group
Protex Protex are a Belfast Punk rock, punk band which formed in 1978. Their first records were issued on Good Vibrations (record label), Good Vibrations records. They formed part of the first wave of Belfast punk bands along with label-mates The Und ...
. However, stylistically and lyrically, power pop bands have tended to have a very "not-punk" top 40 commercial pop music influence and a flashier, heavily teen-pop sense of fashion, especially modern power pop groups such as Stereo Skyline and All Time Low.


Persecution


East Germany

The punk scene began to emerge in socialist East Germany in the late 1970’s. It shared many similarities with that of the West and was considered by the ruling authorities to be a spread of an international youth sub-culture which had its roots in the U.S.A. and Western Europe. Indeed, this was an assessment many East German punks shared themselves. According to one, Mario Schulz, "The start was that I liked the music. I did not quite understand the English texts, but this ostentatious experience as an outsider, this capacity to shock, that pleased me. I was already- someone else would probably express it differently- an awkward sod." By the authorities, punk was seen as representing a way of life which was contrary in nature to existing social conventions and values. Punks were, however, not the only youth sub-culture to be considered ‘negative decadent’ and a threat to the stability of socialist society: heavy metallers, skinheads, and goths were also targeted. Whilst it is hard to ascertain an exact figure, the punk scene in East Germany in the early 1980s was still relatively small. For example, ‘In 1981, the Stasi (secret police) identified 1,000 punks and a broader group of 10,000 sympathisers.’ Punks, whether considered as individuals or as groups, were persecuted by both the regular police and the Stasi. More overt methods of persecution by the regular police- such as enforced haircutting, arrest, and physical beatings- were combined unofficially with the more insidious and far-reaching Zersetzung, decomposition methods (trans. Zersetzung) of the Stasi: these involved various forms of
infiltration Infiltration may refer to: Science, medicine, and engineering *Infiltration (hydrology), downward movement of water into soil *Infiltration (HVAC), a heating, ventilation, and air conditioning term for air leakage into buildings *Infiltration (me ...
, false flag type acts, framing (law), framing, psychological harassment methods designed to cause mental health problems, and political abuse of psychiatry, incarceration on the basis of mental health legislation or on the basis of imprisonment, crimes ostensibly committed. As the methods of the Stasi were difficult to detect and even harder to prove, it allowed them to circumvent international condemnation in regard to the persecution of their own citizens. Aside from being designed to harm people, the methods were also designed to discredit and isolate individuals and break up the various bands and groupings. They relied heavily on the hiring of collaborators who were of a similar disposition to those who were being targeted. According to Stasi officers, this was a task which was harder to achieve with punks due to their ‘feeling of belonging together.’ Nonetheless, the Stasi did have notable success in the repression and decomposition of the punk scene. Former member of the band ''Namenlos'', Jana Schlosser, stated in 1984 when she came out of jail, that "The Stasi had pretty well managed to smash punk."


Global perspectives

The punk subculture has spread to many countries around the world. The fluidity of musical expression in particular makes it an ideal medium for this cross-cultural interpretation.


Mexico

In Mexico, punk culture is primarily a phenomenon among the upper-middle class, many of whom were first exposed to punk music through travel to England, but rapidly shifted to the lower-class youth. Because of low fees at public universities in Mexico, a significant majority of Mexican punks are university students. It is estimated approximately 5,000 young people are active punks in Mexico City, hosting two or three underground shows a week. These young people often form chavos banda—youth gangs—that organized subculture activity by creating formal meeting spaces and rituals and practices. Oral nicknames are a distinguishing feature of Mexican punk, where the tradition of oral culture has influenced the development of nicknames for almost all Mexican punks. Patches are widely used as an inexpensive way to alter clothing and express identity. Though English-language bands like the
Dead Kennedys Dead Kennedys are an American punk rock band that formed in San Francisco, California, in 1978. The band was one of the defining punk bands during its initial eight-year run. Dead Kennedys' lyrics were usually political in nature, satirizing p ...
are well known in Mexico, punks there prefer Spanish-language music or covers translated into Spanish. The slam dance style common in the California punk scene of the early 1980s is thoroughly adopted as part of the movement and continues to be the most popular dancing style among punks. Performance and ideology practices often reflect the socioeconomic circumstances of Mexican punks. Live shows, called "Tocadas" are generally held in public spaces like basketball courts or community centers instead of places of business like venues, bars, and restaurants, as is more common in the United States and Europe. They usually take place in the afternoon and end early to accommodate the two or three hours it takes many punks to return home by public transit. Mexican punk groups rarely release vinyl or CD recordings, usually cassettes are the preferred format. Though Mexican punk itself does not have an explicit political agenda, Mexican punks have been active in the Zapatistas (Mexican Revolution), Zapatista,
Anarcho-punk Anarcho-punk (also known as anarchist punk or peace punk) is ideological subgenre of punk rock that promotes anarchism. Some use the term broadly to refer to any punk music with anarchist lyrical content, which may figure in crust punk, hardcor ...
, and anti-globalisation movements.


South Africa

Punk arrived slowly in South Africa during the 1970s when waves of British tradesmen welcomed by the then-Apartheid in South Africa, apartheid government brought cultural influences like the popular British music magazine ''
NME ''New Musical Express'' (''NME'') is a British music, film, gaming, and culture website and brand. Founded as a newspaper in 1952, with the publication being referred to as a 'rock inkie', the NME would become a magazine that ended up as a f ...
'', sold in South Africa six weeks after publication. South African punk developed separately in
Johannesburg Johannesburg ( , , ; Zulu and xh, eGoli ), colloquially known as Jozi, Joburg, or "The City of Gold", is the largest city in South Africa, classified as a megacity, and is one of the 100 largest urban areas in the world. According to Demo ...
,
Durban Durban ( ) ( zu, eThekwini, from meaning 'the port' also called zu, eZibubulungwini for the mountain range that terminates in the area), nicknamed ''Durbs'',Ishani ChettyCity nicknames in SA and across the worldArticle on ''news24.com'' from ...
, and Cape Town and relied on live performances in Township (South Africa), townships and streets as the multi-racial composition of bands and fan bases challenged the legal and social conventions of the apartheid regime. Political participation is foundational to punk subculture in South Africa. During the apartheid regime, punk was second only to Rock music in its importance to multi-racial interactions in South Africa. Because of this, any involvement in the punk scene was in itself a political statement. Police harassment was common and the government often censored explicitly political lyrics. Johannesburg-based band National Wake was routinely censored and even banned for songs like "International News," which challenged the South African government's refusal to acknowledge the racial and political conflict in the country. National Wake guitarist Ivan Kadey attributes the punk scene's ability to persevere despite the legal challenges of multi-racial mixing to punk subculture's
DIY ethic "Do it yourself" ("DIY") is the method of building, modifying, or repairing things by oneself without the direct aid of professionals or certified experts. Academic research has described DIY as behaviors where "individuals use raw and sem ...
and
anti-establishment An anti-establishment view or belief is one which stands in opposition to the conventional social, political, and economic principles of a society. The term was first used in the modern sense in 1958, by the British magazine ''New Statesman'' ...
attitude. In post-apartheid South Africa, punk attracted a greater number of white middle-class males than the more diverse makeup of the subculture during the apartheid era. Thabo Mbeki's African Renaissance movement has complicated the position of white South Africans in contemporary society. Punk provides young white men the opportunity to explore and express their minority identity. Cape Town band Hog Hoggidy Hog sings of the strange status of white Africans: :''It's my home it's where I'll stay and where I belong,'' :''I didn't choose to be here I was born I might seem out of place'' :''but everything I hold dear is under the African sun.'' Post-apartheid punk subculture continues to be active in South African politics, organising a 2000 festival called Punks Against Racism at Thrashers Statepark in
Pretoria Pretoria () is South Africa's administrative capital, serving as the seat of the executive branch of government, and as the host to all foreign embassies to South Africa. Pretoria straddles the Apies River and extends eastward into the foot ...
. Rather than the sense of despondency and fatalism that characterised 1970s British punk subculture, the politically engaged South African scene is more positive about the future of South Africa.


Peru

In Peru punk traces its roots to the band Los Saicos, a Lima group that played the unique blend of garage and break dance music that would later be labeled punk as early as the 1960s. The early activity of Los Saicos has led many to claim that punk originated in Lima instead of the UK, as is typically assumed. Though their claim to be the first punk band in the world can be disputed, Los Saicos were undoubtedly the first in Latin America and released their first single in 1965. The group played to full houses and made frequent television appearances throughout the 1960s. Throughout the 1970s, the band was completely forgotten. Years later, a plaque that declares "here the global punk-rock movement was born" was placed at the corner of Miguel Iglesias and Julio C. Tello Streets in Lima. By the 1980s the punk scene in Peru was highly active. Peruvian punks call themselves ''subtes'' and appropriate the subversive implications of the English term "underground" through the Spanish term ''subterraneo'' (literally, subterranean). In the 1980s and 1990s subtes made almost exclusive use of cassette recording as a means of circulating music without participating in formal intellectual property and musical production industries. The current scene relies on digital distribution and assumes similar anti-establishment practices. Like many punk subcultures, subtes explicitly oppose the Peruvian state and advocate instead an anarchic resistance that challenges the political and mainstream cultural establishment.


Cuba

A punk subculture originated in
Cuba Cuba ( , ), officially the Republic of Cuba ( es, República de Cuba, links=no ), is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the northern Caribbea ...
in the 1980s, referred to as Los Frikis. As Cuban radio stations rarely played rock music, Frikis often listened to music by picking up radio frequencies from stations in nearby Florida. While many Frikas in the early-1990s entered AIDS clinics by knowingly injecting HIV-positive blood into them, others began congregating at ''El patio de María'', a community centre in
Havana Havana (; Spanish: ''La Habana'' ) is the capital and largest city of Cuba. The heart of the La Habana Province, Havana is the country's main port and commercial center.
that was one of the few venues in the city that allowed rock bands to play. Some Frikis also participate in squatting as an act of political defiance. In its beginning, the subculture was seen as a threat to the Collectivism and individualism, collectivism of Cuban society, leading to Frikis becoming victims of discrimination and police brutality. According to the New Times Broward-Palm Beach some Frikis were "rejected by family and often jailed or fined by the government", the 1980s Friki woman Yoandra Cardoso, however, has that argued that much of the response was verbal harassment from law enforcement. Dionisio Arce, lead vocalist of Cuban heavy metal band Zeus spent six years in prison due to his part in the Frikis. Some schools would forcibly shave the heads of young Frikis as a form of punishment.


See also


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * *


Further reading

* * Savage, Jon. ''England's Dreaming: The Sex Pistols and Punk Rock''. Faber and Faber, 1991.


External links

* {{Authority control Underground culture, * 1970s in the United Kingdom Australian culture Motorcycling subculture Music and politics Musical subcultures Punk Stereotypes Youth culture in the United Kingdom]">Punk Punk or punks may refer to: Genres, subculture, and related aspects * Punk rock, a music genre originating in the 1970s associated with various subgenres * Punk subculture, a subculture associated with punk rock, or aspects of the subculture s ...
 Retrieved 18 April 2009. The punk subculture influenced other
underground music Underground music is music with practices perceived as outside, or somehow opposed to, mainstream popular music culture. Underground music is intimately tied to popular music culture as a whole, so there are important tensions within underground ...
scenes such as
alternative rock Alternative rock, or alt-rock, is a category of rock music that emerged from the independent music underground of the 1970s and became widely popular in the 1990s. "Alternative" refers to the genre's distinction from Popular culture, mainstre ...
,
indie music Independent music (also commonly known as indie music or simply indie) is music that is produced independently from commercial record labels or their subsidiaries, a process that may include an autonomous, do-it-yourself approach to recording a ...
,
crossover thrash Crossover thrash (often abbreviated to crossover) is a fusion genre of thrash metal and hardcore punk. The genre lies on a continuum between heavy metal and hardcore punk. Other genres on the same continuum, such as metalcore and grindcore, ...
, and the extreme subgenres of heavy metal (mainly
thrash metal Thrash metal (or simply thrash) is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music characterized by its overall aggression and often fast tempo.Kahn-Harris, Keith, ''Extreme Metal: Music and Culture on the Edge'', pp. 2–3, 9. Oxford: Berg, 2007, . ...
,
death metal Death metal is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music. It typically employs heavily distorted and low-tuned guitars, played with techniques such as palm muting and tremolo picking; deep growling vocals; aggressive, powerful drumming, feat ...
,
speed metal Speed metal is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music that originated in the late 1970s from new wave of British heavy metal (NWOBHM) roots.K. Kahn-Harris, ''Extreme Metal: Music and Culture on the Edge'' (Berg Publishers, 2007), , p. 31. It ...
, and the
NWOBHM The new wave of British heavy metal (commonly abbreviated as NWOBHM) was a nationwide musical movement that started in England in the mid-1970s and achieved international attention by the early 1980s. Journalist Geoff Barton coined the term ...
). A new movement in the United States became visible in the early and mid-1990s that sought to revive the punk movement, doing away with some of the trappings of hardcore.


Music

The punk subculture is centered on a loud, aggressive genre of rock music called punk rock, usually played by bands consisting of a vocalist, one or two electric guitarists, an electric bassist, and a drummer. In some bands, the musicians contribute backup vocals, which typically consist of shouted slogans, choruses, or football-style chants. While most punk rock uses distorted guitars and noisy drumming sounds derived from 1960s
garage rock Garage rock (sometimes called garage punk or 60s punk) is a raw and energetic style of rock and roll that flourished in the mid-1960s, most notably in the United States and Canada, and has experienced a series of subsequent revivals. The sty ...
and 1970s pub rock, some punk bands incorporate elements from other subgenres, such as surf rock,
rockabilly Rockabilly is one of the earliest styles of rock and roll music. It dates back to the early 1950s in the United States, especially the South. As a genre it blends the sound of Western musical styles such as country with that of rhythm and blu ...
, or
reggae Reggae () is a music genre that originated in Jamaica in the late 1960s. The term also denotes the modern popular music of Jamaica and its diaspora. A 1968 single by Toots and the Maytals, " Do the Reggay" was the first popular song to use ...
. Most punk rock songs are short, have simple and somewhat basic arrangements using relatively few chords, and typically have lyrics that express punk ideologies and values, although some punk lyrics are about lighter topics such as partying or romantic relationships. Different punk subcultures often distinguish themselves by having a unique style of punk rock, although not every style of punk rock has its own associated subculture. The earliest form of music to be called "punk rock" was 1960s
garage rock Garage rock (sometimes called garage punk or 60s punk) is a raw and energetic style of rock and roll that flourished in the mid-1960s, most notably in the United States and Canada, and has experienced a series of subsequent revivals. The sty ...
, and the term was applied to the genre retroactively by influential rock critics in the early 1970s. In the late 1960s, music now referred to as
protopunk Proto-punk (or protopunk) is rock music played mostly by garage bands from the 1960s to mid-1970s that foreshadowed the punk rock movement. The phrase is a retrospective label; the musicians involved were generally not originally associated wi ...
originated as a garage rock revival in the northeastern United States. "Protopunk"from Allmusic.com The first distinct music scene to claim the ''punk'' label appeared in New York City between 1974 and 1976.Harrington, Joe S. ''Sonic Cool: The Life & Death of Rock 'N' Roll''. pp. 324–30. 2002. Hal-Leonard. USA. Around the same time or soon afterward, a punk scene developed in London.Harrington, Joe S. ''Sonic Cool: The Life & Death of Rock 'N' Roll''. pp. 344–50. 2002. Hal-Leonard. USA. Los Angeles subsequently became home to the third major punk scene. These three cities formed the backbone of the burgeoning movement, but there were also other punk scenes in cities such as
Brisbane Brisbane ( ) is the capital and most populous city of the states and territories of Australia, Australian state of Queensland, and the list of cities in Australia by population, third-most populous city in Australia and Oceania, with a populati ...
,
Melbourne Melbourne ( ; Boonwurrung/Woiwurrung: ''Narrm'' or ''Naarm'') is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in both Australia and Oceania. Its name generally refers to a met ...
, and
Sydney Sydney ( ) is the capital city of the state of New South Wales, and the most populous city in both Australia and Oceania. Located on Australia's east coast, the metropolis surrounds Sydney Harbour and extends about towards the Blue Mountain ...
in Australia,
Toronto Toronto ( ; or ) is the capital city of the Canadian province of Ontario. With a recorded population of 2,794,356 in 2021, it is the most populous city in Canada and the fourth most populous city in North America. The city is the ancho ...
,
Vancouver Vancouver ( ) is a major city in western Canada, located in the Lower Mainland region of British Columbia. As the List of cities in British Columbia, most populous city in the province, the 2021 Canadian census recorded 662,248 people in the ...
, and
Montreal Montreal ( ; officially Montréal, ) is the List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population, second-most populous city in Canada and List of towns in Quebec, most populous city in the Provinces and territories of Canada, Canadian ...
in Canada, and
Boston Boston (), officially the City of Boston, is the state capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, as well as the cultural and financial center of the New England region of the United States. It is the 24th- mo ...
and San Francisco in the United States. The punk subculture advocates a do-it-yourself (DIY) ethic. During the subculture's infancy members were almost all from a lower economic class, and had become tired of the affluence that was associated with popular rock music at the time. Punks would publish their own music or sign with small independent labels, in hopes to combat what they saw as a money-hungry music industry. The DIY ethic is still popular with punks. The New York City punk rock scene arose from a subcultural underground promoted by artists, reporters, musicians, and a wide variety of non-mainstream enthusiasts.
The Velvet Underground The Velvet Underground was an American rock band formed in New York City in 1964. The original line-up consisted of singer/guitarist Lou Reed, multi-instrumentalist John Cale, guitarist Sterling Morrison, and drummer Angus MacLise. MacLise ...
's harsh and experimental yet often melodic sound in the mid to late-1960s, much of it relating to transgressive media work by visual artist
Andy Warhol Andy Warhol (; born Andrew Warhola Jr.; August 6, 1928 – February 22, 1987) was an American visual artist, film director, and producer who was a leading figure in the Art movement, visual art movement known as pop art. His works explore th ...
, is credited for influencing 1970s bands such as the New York Dolls,
The Stooges The Stooges, originally billed as the Psychedelic Stooges, also known as Iggy and the Stooges, was an American rock band formed in Ann Arbor, Michigan, in 1967 by singer Iggy Pop, guitarist Ron Asheton, drummer Scott Asheton, and bassist Da ...
, and the Ramones. Early New York City punk bands were often short-lived, in part due to widespread use of
recreational drugs Recreation is an activity of leisure, leisure being discretionary time. The "need to do something for recreation" is an essential element of human biology and psychology. Recreational activities are often done for enjoyment, amusement, or pleasur ...
, promiscuous sex, and sometimes violent power struggles, but the relative popularity of the music led to the evolution of punk into a movement and lifestyle.


Ideologies

Punk political ideologies are mostly concerned with individual freedom and
anti-establishment An anti-establishment view or belief is one which stands in opposition to the conventional social, political, and economic principles of a society. The term was first used in the modern sense in 1958, by the British magazine ''New Statesman'' ...
views. Common punk viewpoints include
individual liberty Civil liberties are guarantees and freedoms that governments commit not to abridge, either by constitution, legislation, or judicial interpretation, without due process. Though the scope of the term differs between countries, civil liberties may ...
, anti-authoritarianism, a
DIY ethic "Do it yourself" ("DIY") is the method of building, modifying, or repairing things by oneself without the direct aid of professionals or certified experts. Academic research has described DIY as behaviors where "individuals use raw and sem ...
, non-conformity, anti-
corporatism Corporatism is a collectivist political ideology which advocates the organization of society by corporate groups, such as agricultural, labour, military, business, scientific, or guild associations, on the basis of their common interests. The ...
, anti-government, direct action, and not "
selling out "Selling out", or "sold out" in the past tense, is a common expression for the compromising of a person's integrity, morality, authenticity, or principles by forgoing the long-term benefits of the collective or group in exchange for personal ga ...
". Some groups and individuals that try to self-identify as being a part of the punk subculture hold pro-Nazi or Fascist views, however, these Nazi/Fascist groups are rejected by almost all of the punk subculture. The belief that such views are opposed to the original ethos of the punk subculture, and its history, has led to internal conflicts and an active push against such views being considered part of punk subculture at all. Two examples of this are an incident during the 2016 American Music Awards, where the band Green Day chanted anti-racist and anti-fascist messages, and an incident at a show by the Dropkick Murphys, when bassist and singer Ken Casey tackled an individual for giving a Nazi-style salute and later stated that Nazis are not welcome at a Dropkick Murphys show. Band member Tim Brennan later reaffirmed this sentiment. The song "
Nazi Punks Fuck Off "Nazi Punks Fuck Off" is the fifth single by Dead Kennedys. It was released in 1981 on Alternative Tentacles with "Moral Majority" as the B-side. Both are from the '' In God We Trust, Inc.'' EP, although the EP version is a different recordi ...
" by hardcore punk band
Dead Kennedys Dead Kennedys are an American punk rock band that formed in San Francisco, California, in 1978. The band was one of the defining punk bands during its initial eight-year run. Dead Kennedys' lyrics were usually political in nature, satirizing p ...
is a standout example. Early British punks expressed
nihilistic Nihilism (; ) is a philosophy, or family of views within philosophy, that rejects generally accepted or fundamental aspects of human existence, such as objective truth, knowledge, morality, values, or meaning of life, meaning. The term was pop ...
and anarchist views with the slogan ''No Future'', which came from the Sex Pistols song "
God Save the Queen "God Save the King" is the national and/or royal anthem of the United Kingdom, most of the Commonwealth realms, their territories, and the British Crown Dependencies. The author of the tune is unknown and it may originate in plainchant, bu ...
". In the United States, punks had a different approach to nihilism which was less anarchistic than the British punks. Punk nihilism was expressed in the use of "harder, more self-destructive, consciousness-obliterating substances like heroin, or methamphetamine". The issue of authenticity is important in the punk subculture—the pejorative term "
poseur A poseur is someone who poses for effect, or behaves affectedly, who affects a particular attitude, character or manner to impress others, or who pretends to belong to a particular group.
" is applied to those who associate with punk and adopt its stylistic attributes but are deemed not to share or understand the underlying values or philosophy.


Fashion

Early punk fashion adapted everyday objects for aesthetic effect: ripped clothing was held together by safety pins or wrapped with tape; ordinary clothing was customised by embellishing it with marker or adorning it with paint; a black
bin liner A bin bag, rubbish bag (British English), garbage bag, bin liner, trash bag (American English) or refuse sack is a disposable bag used to contain solid waste. Such bags are useful to line the insides of waste containers to prevent the insides ...
became a dress, shirt or skirt; safety pins and razor blades were used as jewellery. Also popular have been leather, rubber, and PVC clothing that is often associated with transgressive sexuality, like
BDSM BDSM is a variety of often erotic practices or roleplaying involving bondage, discipline, dominance and submission, sadomasochism, and other related interpersonal dynamics. Given the wide range of practices, some of which may be engaged ...
and S&M. A designer associated with early UK punk fashion was
Vivienne Westwood Dame Vivienne Isabel Westwood (née Swire; born 8 April 1941) is an English fashion designer and businesswoman, largely responsible for bringing modern punk and new wave fashions into the mainstream. Westwood came to public notice when she m ...
, who made clothes for Malcolm McLaren's boutique in the
King's Road King's Road or Kings Road (or sometimes the King's Road, especially when it was the king's private road until 1830, or as a colloquialism by middle/upper class London residents), is a major street stretching through Chelsea and Fulham, both ...
, which became famous as "
SEX Sex is the trait that determines whether a sexually reproducing animal or plant produces male or female gametes. Male plants and animals produce smaller mobile gametes (spermatozoa, sperm, pollen), while females produce larger ones ( ova, of ...
". Many punks wear tight "drainpipe" jeans, plaid/tartan trousers, kilts or skirts, T-shirts, leather jackets (often decorated with painted band logos, pins and buttons, and metal studs or spikes), and footwear such as high-cut Chuck Taylors,
trainers Sneakers (also called trainers, athletic shoes, tennis shoes, gym shoes, kicks, sport shoes, flats, running shoes, or runners) are shoes primarily designed for sports or other forms of physical exercise, but which are now also widely used fo ...
,
skate shoes Skate or Skates may refer to: Fish *Skate (fish), several genera of fish belonging to the family Rajidae * Pygmy skates, several genera of fish belonging to the family Gurgesiellidae * Smooth skates or leg skates, several genera of fish belongin ...
,
brothel creeper Brothel creepers, sometimes shortened to creepers, are a style of shoe that has thick crepe soles, often in combination with suede uppers. This style of footwear became fashionable in the years following World War II, seeing resurgences of popul ...
s, Dr. Martens boots, and army boots. Early punks occasionally wore clothes displaying a
swastika The swastika (卐 or 卍) is an ancient religious and cultural symbol, predominantly in various Eurasian, as well as some African and American cultures, now also widely recognized for its appropriation by the Nazi Party and by neo-Nazis. It ...
for shock value, but most contemporary punks are staunchly anti-racist and are more likely to wear a crossed-out swastika symbol than a pro-Nazi symbol. Some punks cut their hair into mohawks or other dramatic shapes, style it to stand in spikes, and colour it with vibrant, unnatural hues. Some punks are ''anti-fashion'', arguing that punk should be defined by music or ideology. This is most common in the post-1980s US
hardcore punk Hardcore punk (also known as simply hardcore) is a punk rock music genre and subculture that originated in the late 1970s. It is generally faster, harder, and more aggressive than other forms of punk rock. Its roots can be traced to earlier punk ...
scene, where members of the subculture often dressed in plain T-shirts and jeans, rather than the more elaborate outfits and spiked, dyed hair of their British counterparts. Many groups adopt a look based on street clothes and working-class outfits. Hardcore punk fans adopted a ''dressed-down'' style of T-shirts, jeans, combat boots or trainers, and
crewcut A crew cut is a type of haircut in which the upright hair on the top of the head is cut relatively short, graduated in length from the longest hair that forms a short pomp ( pompadour) at the front hairline to the shortest at the back of the crow ...
s. Women in the hardcore scene typically wore army trousers, band T-shirts, and hooded jumpers. The style of the 1980s hardcore scene contrasted with the more provocative fashion styles of late 1970s punk rockers (elaborate hairdos, torn clothes, patches, safety pins, studs, spikes, etc.). Circle Jerks frontman
Keith Morris Keith Morris (born September 18, 1955) is an American singer and songwriter known for his role as frontman of the hardcore punk bands Black Flag, Circle Jerks, and Off!. Born and raised in Hermosa Beach, California, he formed Black Flag at the ...
described early hardcore fashion as "the...punk scene was basically based on English fashion. But we had nothing to do with that. Black Flag and the Circle Jerks were so far from that. We looked like the kid who worked at the gas station or
submarine A submarine (or sub) is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability. The term is also sometimes used historically or colloquially to refer to remotely op ...
shop." Henry Rollins echoes Morris' point, stating that for him getting dressed up meant putting on a black shirt and some dark pants; Rollins viewed an interest in fashion as being a distraction. Jimmy Gestapo from Murphy's Law describes his own transition from dressing in a punk style (spiked hair and a
bondage belt A body belt is any waist belt which has D-rings or other attachment points. The belts can be used as medical restraints in institutions for bed and wheelchair restraints, and for safety in activities such as abseiling or construction work. When ...
) to adopting a hardcore style (i.e. boots and a shaved head) as being based on a need for more functional clothing. A punk scholar states that "hardcore kids do not look like punks", since hardcore scene members wore basic clothing and short haircuts, in contrast to the "embellished leather jackets and pants" worn in the punk scene. In contrast to Morris' and Rollins' views, another punk scholar claims that the standard hardcore punk clothing and styles included torn jeans, leather jackets, spiked armbands and dog collars, mohawk hairstyles, and DIY ornamentation of clothes with studs, painted band names, political statements, and patches. Yet another punk scholar describes the look that was common in the San Francisco hardcore scene as consisting of biker-style leather jackets, chains, studded wristbands, pierced noses and multiple piercings, painted or tattooed statements (e.g. an anarchy symbol), and hairstyles ranging from military-style haircuts dyed black or blonde to mohawks and shaved heads. The
Metropolitan Museum of Art The Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York City, colloquially "the Met", is the largest art museum in the Americas. Its permanent collection contains over two million works, divided among 17 curatorial departments. The main building at 1000 ...
in 2013 hosted a comprehensive exhibit, ''PUNK: Chaos to Couture'', that examined the techniques of hardware, distress, and re-purposing in punk fashion.


Gender and gender expression

In the United Kingdom, the advent of
punk Punk or punks may refer to: Genres, subculture, and related aspects * Punk rock, a music genre originating in the 1970s associated with various subgenres * Punk subculture, a subculture associated with punk rock, or aspects of the subculture s ...
in the late 1970s with its "anyone can do it" ethos led to women making significant contributions. In contrast to the rock music and heavy metal scenes of the 1970s, which were dominated by men, the anarchic, counter-cultural mindset of the punk scene in mid- and late 1970s encouraged women to participate. "That was the beauty of the punk thing," Chrissie Hynde later said. " exualdiscrimination didn't exist in that scene." This participation played a role in the historical development of punk music, especially in the U.S. and U.K. at that time, and continues to influence and enable future generations. Rock historian Helen Reddington states that the popular image of young punk women musicians as focused on the fashion aspects of the scene (fishnet stockings, spiky blond hair, etc.) was stereotypical. She states that many, if not most women punks were more interested in the ideology and socio-political implications, rather than the fashion. Music historian Caroline Coon contends that before punk, women in rock music were virtually invisible; in contrast, in punk, she argues " would be possible to write the whole history of punk music without mentioning any male bands at all – and I think a lot of eoplewould find that very surprising."
Johnny Rotten John Joseph Lydon (; born 31 January 1956), also known by his former stage name Johnny Rotten, is an English singer and songwriter. He was the lead singer of the late-1970s punk band the Sex Pistols, which lasted from 1975 until 1978, and aga ...
wrote that 'During the Pistols era, women were out there playing with the men, taking us on in equal terms ... It wasn't combative, but compatible.' Women were involved in bands such as
The Runaways The Runaways were an all-female American rock band who recorded and performed from 1975 to 1979. The band released four studio albums and one live album during its run. Among their best-known songs are " Cherry Bomb", "Hollywood", "Queens of ...
,
The Slits The Slits were a punk and post-punk band based in London, formed there in 1976 by members of the groups the Flowers of Romance and the Castrators. The group's early line-up consisted of Ari Up (Ariane Forster) and Palmolive (a.k.a. Paloma R ...
,
The Raincoats The Raincoats are a British experimental post-punk band. Ana da Silva (vocals, guitar) and Gina Birch (vocals, bass) formed the group in 1977 while they were students at Hornsey College of Art in London. Signed to the label Rough Trade, the ...
,
Mo-dettes Mo-dettes were an English all-female post-punk band, formed in 1979 by guitarist Kate Korris, an original member of The Slits and brief member of The Raincoats, and bassist Jane Crockford, former member of Bank of Dresden. Ramona Carlier (vocal ...
,
Dolly Mixture Dolly mixture is a British confection, consisting of a variety of multi-coloured fondant shapes, such as cubes and cylinders with subtle flavourings, and sugar-coated jellies. The origin of the name is uncertain. It has been passed down throu ...
, and The Innocents. Others take issue with the notion of equal recognition, such as guitarist
Viv Albertine Viviane Katrina Louise Albertine (born 1 December 1954) is an Australian-born British musician, singer, songwriter and writer. She is best known as the guitarist for the punk band the Slits from 1977 until 1982, with whom she recorded two studio ...
, who stated that "the A&R men, the bouncers, the sound mixers, no one took us seriously. So, no, we got no respect anywhere we went. People just didn't want us around." The anti-establishment stance of punk opened the space for women who were treated like outsiders in a male-dominated industry. Sonic Youth's
Kim Gordon Kim Althea Gordon (born April 28, 1953) is an American musician, singer and songwriter, best known as the bassist, guitarist, and vocalist of alternative rock band Sonic Youth. Born in Rochester, New York, she was raised in Los Angeles, Califor ...
states, "I think women are natural anarchists, because you're always operating in a male framework."


Body and appearance

For some punks, the body was a symbol of opposition, a political statement expressing disgust of all that was "normal" and socially accepted. The idea was to make others outside of the subculture question their own views, which made gender presentation and gender identity a popular factor to be played with. In some ways, punk helped to tear apart the normalised view of gender as a dichotomy. There was a notable amount of cross-dressing in the punk scene; it was not unusual to see men wearing ripped-up skirts, fishnet tights, and excessive makeup, or to see women with shaved heads wearing oversized plaid shirts and jean jackets and heavy combat boots. Punk created a new cultural space for androgyny and all kinds of gender expression. In trying to reject societal norms, punk embraced one societal norm by deciding that strength and anger was best expressed through masculinity, defining masculine as the "default", where gender did not exist or had no meaning. However, the main reasoning behind this argument equates femininity with popular conceptions of beauty. Everything that was normally supposed to be hidden was brought to the front, both literally and figuratively. This could mean anything from wearing bras and underwear on top of clothing to wearing nothing but a bra and underwear. Although that act can seem sexualised, to punks it was just a way of self-expression. Punk seemed to allow people to sexualize themselves and still be taken seriously. The nature of punk allowed many to create a non-gender-conforming style. Punks could be free to use femininity or masculinity to make what they were doing even more shocking to their audience. It became popular for some punks to accentuate societal norms. At one concert,
Donita Sparks Donita Sparks (born April 8, 1963) is an American singer, guitarist, and songwriter most notable for being the co-founder of the band L7. Sparks also initiated, performed, and released original material with her solo project, the band Donita S ...
, lead singer of the band L7, pulled out her tampon and threw it into the audience.


Riot grrrl

Riot grrrl is an
underground Underground most commonly refers to: * Subterranea (geography), the regions beneath the surface of the Earth Underground may also refer to: Places * The Underground (Boston), a music club in the Allston neighborhood of Boston * The Underground ...
feminist
hardcore punk Hardcore punk (also known as simply hardcore) is a punk rock music genre and subculture that originated in the late 1970s. It is generally faster, harder, and more aggressive than other forms of punk rock. Its roots can be traced to earlier punk ...
movement that originated in the early 1990s in Washington, D.C., and the
Pacific Northwest The Pacific Northwest (sometimes Cascadia, or simply abbreviated as PNW) is a geographic region in western North America bounded by its coastal waters of the Pacific Ocean to the west and, loosely, by the Rocky Mountains to the east. Tho ...
, especially
Olympia, Washington Olympia is the capital of the U.S. state of Washington and the county seat and largest city of Thurston County. It is southwest of the state's most populous city, Seattle, and is a cultural center of the southern Puget Sound region. Europea ...
. It is often associated with
third-wave feminism Third-wave feminism is an iteration of the feminist movement that began in the early 1990s, prominent in the decades prior to the fourth wave. Grounded in the civil-rights advances of the second wave, Gen X and early Gen Y generations third-w ...
, which is sometimes seen as its starting point. It has also been described as a musical genre that came out of indie rock, with the punk scene serving as an inspiration for a musical movement in which women could express themselves in the same way men had been doing for the past several years.


Visual art

Punk aesthetics determine the type of art punks enjoy, usually with
underground Underground most commonly refers to: * Subterranea (geography), the regions beneath the surface of the Earth Underground may also refer to: Places * The Underground (Boston), a music club in the Allston neighborhood of Boston * The Underground ...
, minimalistic,
iconoclastic Iconoclasm (from Ancient Greek, Greek: grc, wikt:εἰκών, εἰκών, lit=figure, icon, translit=eikṓn, label=none + grc, wikt:κλάω, κλάω, lit=to break, translit=kláō, label=none)From grc, wikt:εἰκών, εἰκών + wi ...
, and satirical sensibilities. Punk artwork graces
album cover An album cover (also referred to as album art) is the front packaging art of a commercially released studio album or other audio recordings. The term can refer to either the printed paperboard covers typically used to package sets of and 78-r ...
s, flyers for concerts, and
punk zine A punk zine (or punkzine) is a zine related to the punk subculture and hardcore punk music genre. Often primitively or casually produced, they feature punk literature, such as social commentary, punk poetry, news, gossip, music reviews and arti ...
s. Usually straightforward with clear messages, punk art is often concerned with political issues such as
social injustice Social justice is justice in terms of the distribution of wealth, opportunities, and privileges within a society. In Western and Asian cultures, the concept of social justice has often referred to the process of ensuring that individuals f ...
and economic disparity. The use of images of suffering to shock and create feelings of empathy in the viewer is common. Alternatively, punk artwork may contain images of selfishness, stupidity, or apathy to provoke contempt in the viewer. Much of the earlier artwork was black and white, because it was distributed in
zines A zine ( ; short for ''magazine'' or ''fanzine'') is a small-circulation self-published work of original or appropriated texts and images, usually reproduced via a copy machine. Zines are the product of either a single person or of a very smal ...
and reproduced by photocopying at work, school, or at copy shops. Punk art also uses the mass production aesthetic of
Andy Warhol Andy Warhol (; born Andrew Warhola Jr.; August 6, 1928 – February 22, 1987) was an American visual artist, film director, and producer who was a leading figure in the Art movement, visual art movement known as pop art. His works explore th ...
's Factory studio. Punk played a hand in the revival of stencil art, spearheaded by
Crass Crass were an English art collective and punk rock band formed in Epping, Essex in 1977, who promoted anarchism as a political ideology, a lifestylism, way of life, and a resistance movement. Crass popularised the anarcho-punk movement of the ...
. The Situationist International, Situationists also influenced the look of punk art, particularly that of the Sex Pistols created by Jamie Reid. Punk art often uses collage, exemplified by the art of Jamie Reid, Crass, The Clash,
Dead Kennedys Dead Kennedys are an American punk rock band that formed in San Francisco, California, in 1978. The band was one of the defining punk bands during its initial eight-year run. Dead Kennedys' lyrics were usually political in nature, satirizing p ...
, and Winston Smith (artist), Winston Smith. John Holmstrom was a punk cartoonist who created work for the Ramones and ''Punk (magazine), Punk''.


Dance

Two dance styles associated with punk are pogo (dance), pogo dancing and
moshing Moshing (also known as slam dancing or simply slamming) is an extreme style of dancing in which participants push or slam into each other, typically performed to "aggressive" live music such as heavy metal and punk rock. Moshing usually happen ...
. The pogo is a dance in which the dancers jump up and down, while either remaining on the spot or moving around; the dance takes its name from its resemblance to the use of a pogo stick, especially in a common version of the dance, where an individual keeps their torso stiff, their arms rigid, and their legs close together. Pogo dancing is closely associated with punk rock and is a precursor to moshing. Moshing or slamdancing is a style of dance where participants push or slam into each other, typically during a live music show. It is usually associated with "aggressive" music genres, such as hardcore punk and
thrash metal Thrash metal (or simply thrash) is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music characterized by its overall aggression and often fast tempo.Kahn-Harris, Keith, ''Extreme Metal: Music and Culture on the Edge'', pp. 2–3, 9. Oxford: Berg, 2007, . ...
. Stage diving and crowd surfing were originally associated with
protopunk Proto-punk (or protopunk) is rock music played mostly by garage bands from the 1960s to mid-1970s that foreshadowed the punk rock movement. The phrase is a retrospective label; the musicians involved were generally not originally associated wi ...
bands such as The Stooges, and have appeared at punk, metal, and rock concerts. Ska punk promoted an updated version of skank (dance), skanking. Hardcore dancing is a later development influenced by all of the above-mentioned styles. Psychobillies prefer to "wreck", a form of slam dancing that involves people punching each other in the chest and arms as they move around the circle pit.


Literature

Punk has generated a considerable amount of poetry and
prose Prose is a form of written or spoken language that follows the natural flow of speech, uses a language's ordinary grammatical structures, or follows the conventions of formal academic writing. It differs from most traditional poetry, where the ...
. Punk has its own
underground press The terms underground press or clandestine press refer to periodicals and publications that are produced without official approval, illegally or against the wishes of a dominant (governmental, religious, or institutional) group. In specific rec ...
in the form of
punk zine A punk zine (or punkzine) is a zine related to the punk subculture and hardcore punk music genre. Often primitively or casually produced, they feature punk literature, such as social commentary, punk poetry, news, gossip, music reviews and arti ...
s, which feature news, gossip, cultural criticism, and interviews. Some zines take the form of
perzine Perzines are a genre of zines; the "per" meaning "personal". Although most zines could be considered personal in that they represent the opinionated work of one person, this term describes zines that are written about one's own personal experienc ...
s. Important punk zines include ''Maximum RocknRoll'', ''Punk Planet'', ''No Cure'', ''
Cometbus Aaron Elliott (born May 20, 1968), better known as Aaron Cometbus, is an American musician, songwriter, roadie, and magazine editor, best known as the creator of the punk zine ''Cometbus''. Career Born in Berkeley, California, Cometbus started ...
'', ''Flipside (fanzine), Flipside'', and ''RE/Search, Search & Destroy''. Several novels, biographies, autobiographies, and comic books have been written about punk. ''Love and Rockets (comics), Love and Rockets'' is a comic with a plot involving the Los Angeles punk scene. Just as zines played an important role in spreading information in the punk era (e.g. British fanzines like Mark Perry's ''Sniffin Glue'' and Shane MacGowan's ''Bondage''), zines also played an important role in the hardcore scene. In the pre-Internet era, zines enabled readers to learn about bands, shows, clubs, and record labels. Zines typically included reviews of shows and records, interviews with bands, letters to the editor, and advertisements for records and labels. Zines were DIY products, "proudly amateur, usually handmade, and always independent", and during the "'90s, zines were the primary way to stay up on punk and hardcore." They were the "blogs, comment sections, and social networks of their day." In the American Midwest, the zine ''Touch and Go'' described the regional hardcore scene from 1979 to 1983. ''We Got Power'' described the LA scene from 1981 to 1984, and included show reviews of and interviews with such bands as Vancouver's D.O.A. (band), D.O.A., the Misfits (band), Misfits, Black Flag, Suicidal Tendencies, and the Circle Jerks. ''My Rules'' was a photo zine that included photos of hardcore shows from across the US. ''In Effect'', which began in 1988, described the New York City scene. Punk poets include: Richard Hell, Jim Carroll, Patti Smith, John Cooper Clarke, Steven Wells, Seething Wells, Raegan Butcher, and Attila the Stockbroker. The Medway Poets performance group included punk musician Billy Childish and had an influence on Tracey Emin. Jim Carroll's autobiographical works are among the first known examples of punk literature. The punk subculture has inspired the
cyberpunk Cyberpunk is a subgenre of science fiction in a dystopian futuristic setting that tends to focus on a "combination of lowlife and high tech", featuring futuristic technological and scientific achievements, such as artificial intelligence and c ...
and steampunk literature genres, and has even contributed (through Iggy Pop) to classical scholarship.


Film

Many punk-themed films have been made. The No Wave Cinema and Remodernist film movements owe much to punk aesthetics. Several famous punk bands have participated in movies, such as the Ramones in ''Rock 'n' Roll High School'', the Sex Pistols in ''The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle'', and Social Distortion in ''Another State of Mind (film), Another State of Mind''. Derek Jarman and Don Letts are notable punk filmmakers. Penelope Spheeris' first instalment of the documentary trilogy "The Decline of Western Civilization" (1981) focuses on the early Los Angeles punk scene through interviews and early concert footage from bands including Black Flag, Circle Jerks, Germs (band), Germs, and Fear (band), Fear. The Decline of Western Civilization III" explores the gutter punk lifestyle in the 1990s. ''Loren Cass'' is another example of the punk subculture represented in film. The Japanese cyberpunk movement has roots in the Japanese punk subculture that arose in the 1970s. The filmmaker Sogo Ishii introduced this subculture to Japanese cinema with his punk films ''Panic High School'' (1978) and ''Crazy Thunder Road'' (1980), which portrayed the rebellion and anarchy associated with punk, and went on to become highly influential in underground film circles. ''Crazy Thunder Road'' in particular was an influential biker film, with a punk biker gang aesthetic that paved the way for Katsuhiro Otomo's manga and
anime is Traditional animation, hand-drawn and computer animation, computer-generated animation originating from Japan. Outside of Japan and in English, ''anime'' refers specifically to animation produced in Japan. However, in Japan and in Japane ...
franchise ''Akira (franchise), Akira'' (1982 debut). Ishii's next film was the frenetic ''Shuffle'' (1981), an unofficial short film adaptation of a manga comic strip by Otomo. The documentary film ''
Afro-Punk Afro-punk (sometimes spelled Afro-Punk, Afropunk or AfroPunk) refers to the participation of African Americans and other Black people in punk and alternative subcultures, especially in the United States. History The term originated from the 200 ...
'' covers the black experience in the punk DIY scene.


Perspectives on drugs and alcohol


Inhalable solvents

"Intoxicative inhalant, [Glue] sniffing was adopted by punks because public perceptions of sniffing fitted in with their self-image. Originally used experimentally and as a cheap high, adult disgust and hostility encouraged punks to use glue sniffing as a way of shocking society." Model airplane glue and contact cement were among the numerous solvents and inhalants used by punks to achieve euphoria and intoxication. Glue was typically inhaled by placing a quantity in a plastic bag and "huffing" (inhaling) the vapour. Liquid solvents were typically inhaled by soaking a rag with the solvent and inhaling the vapour. While users inhale solvents for the intoxicating effects, the practice can be harmful or fatal.


Straight edge

Straight edge is a philosophy of hardcore punk culture, adherents of which refrain from using alcohol, tobacco, and other recreational drugs, in reaction to the excesses of punk subculture. For some, this extends to refraining from engaging in promiscuous sex, following a vegetarian or
vegan Veganism is the practice of abstaining from the use of animal product—particularly in diet—and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. An individual who follows the diet or philosophy is known as a vegan. ...
diet, and not drinking coffee or taking prescribed medicine. The term ''straight edge'' was adopted from the 1981 song "Straight Edge (song), Straight Edge" by the hardcore punk band Minor Threat. Straight edge emerged amid the early-1980s hardcore punk scene. Since then, a wide variety of beliefs and ideas have been associated with the movement, including vegetarianism and animal rights. Ross Haenfler writes that as of the late 1990s, approximately three out of four straight edge participants were vegetarian or vegan. While the commonly expressed aspects of the straight edge subculture have been abstinence from alcohol, nicotine, and illegal drugs, there have been considerable variations on how far to take the interpretations of "abstaining from intoxicants" or "living drug-free". Disagreements often arise as to the primary reasons for living straight edge. Straight edge politics are primarily left-wing and revolutionary but there have been conservative offshoots. In 1999, William Tsitsos wrote that straight edge had gone through three eras since its founding in the early 1980s. Bent edge began as a counter-movement to straight edge by members of the Washington, D.C. hardcore scene who were frustrated by the rigidity and intolerance in the scene. During the youth crew era, which started in the mid-1980s, the influence of music on the straight edge scene was at an all-time high. By the early 1990s, militant straight edge was a well-known part of the wider punk scene. In the early to mid-1990s, straight edge spread from the United States to Northern Europe, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and South America. By the beginning of the 2000s, militant straight edge punks had largely left the broader straight edge culture and movement.


Lifestyle and community

Punks come from all culture and economic classes. Compared to some subcultures, punk ideology is much closer to gender equality. Although the punk subculture is mostly
anti-racist Anti-racism encompasses a range of ideas and political actions which are meant to counter racial prejudice, systemic racism, and the oppression of specific racial groups. Anti-racism is usually structured around conscious efforts and deliberate ...
, it is overwhelmingly white. However, members of other groups (such as African Americans, other black people, Latinos, and Asians) have contributed to the development of the subculture. Substance abuse has sometimes been a part of the punk scene, with the notable exception of the straight edge movement. Violence has also sometimes appeared in the punk subculture, but has been opposed by some subsets of the subculture, such as the pacifist strain
anarcho-punk Anarcho-punk (also known as anarchist punk or peace punk) is ideological subgenre of punk rock that promotes anarchism. Some use the term broadly to refer to any punk music with anarchist lyrical content, which may figure in crust punk, hardcor ...
. Punks often form a local scene, which can have as few as half a dozen members in a small town, or as many as thousands of in a major city. A local scene usually has a small group of dedicated punks surrounded by a more casual periphery. A typical punk scene is made up of punk and hardcore bands, fans who attend concerts, protests, and other events, zine publishers, reviewers, and other writers, visual artists illustrating zines, and creating posters and album covers, show promoters, and people who work at music venues or independent record labels. Squatting plays a role in many punk communities, providing shelter and other forms of support. Squats in abandoned or condemned housing, and communal "punk houses" often provide bands a place to stay while they are touring. There are some punk commune (intentional community), communes, such as Essex's Dial House (Essex, England), Dial House. The Internet has been playing an increasingly large role in punk, specifically in the form of virtual communities and file sharing programs for trading music files.


Authenticity

In the punk and hardcore subcultures, members of the scene are often evaluated in terms of the authenticity (philosophy), authenticity of their commitment to the values or philosophies of the scene, which may range from political beliefs to lifestyle practices. In the punk subculture, the epithet ''
poseur A poseur is someone who poses for effect, or behaves affectedly, who affects a particular attitude, character or manner to impress others, or who pretends to belong to a particular group.
'' (or "poser") is used to describe "a person who habitually pretends to be something [they are] not." The term is used to refer to a person who adopts the dress, speech, and/or mannerisms of a particular subculture, yet who is deemed to not share or understand the values or philosophy of the subculture. While this perceived inauthenticity is viewed with scorn and contempt by members of the subculture, the definition of the term and to whom it should be applied is subjective. An article in ''Drowned in Sound'' argues that 1980s-era "hardcore punk, hardcore is the true spirit of punk", because "after all the poseurs and fashionistas fucked off to the next trend of skinny pink ties with New Romantic haircuts, singing wimpy lyrics", the punk scene consisted only of people "completely dedicated to the
DIY "Do it yourself" ("DIY") is the method of building, modifying, or repairing things by oneself without the direct aid of professionals or certified experts. Academic research has described DIY as behaviors where "individuals use raw and sem ...
ethics". Proto-punk bands such as the Who, the Stooges, the Velvet Underground, Pink Fairies, the Deviants, and Edgar Broughton Band came out of garage-rock during the late 1960s. Usually, white working-class boys are credited for pioneering the genre, however, there were many women (Patti Smith, Siouxsie Sioux) and people of color (the Specials member) who contributed to the original punk sound and aesthetic. Because the original subculture meant to challenge to the mainstream, and punk movement became major it was brought to the mainstream. If punk is commercialized, it is far from street culture. This is the paradox of punk; as a subculture, it must always be evolving to stay out of the mainstream. ''Punk Girls'' written by Liz Ham is a
photo-book A photo book or photobook is a book in which photographs make a significant contribution to the overall content. A photo book is related to and also often used as a coffee table book. Early Early photo books are characterized by their use o ...
featuring 100 portraits of Australian women in the punk subculture, and it was published in 2017 by Manuscript Daily. Discrimination against punk subculture is explored with her photographs in the book; these ''girls'' who are not mainstream, but "beautiful and talented".


Interactions with other subcultures

Some of the first hip hop MCs called themselves punk rockers, and some punk fashions have found their way into hip hop dress and vice versa. Malcolm McLaren played roles in introducing both punk and hip hop to the United Kingdom. Hip hop later influenced some punk and hardcore punk, hardcore bands, such as the Beastie Boys, Hed PE, Blaggers I.T.A., Biohazard (band), Biohazard, E.Town Concrete, The Transplants, and
Refused Refused (also known as the Refused) is a Swedish hardcore punk band originating from Umeå and formed in 1991. Refused is composed of vocalist Dennis Lyxzén, guitarist Kristofer Steen, drummer David Sandström, and bassist Magnus Flagge. G ...
. Other rappers and hip-hop acts were influenced by the subcultures of crust punk and hardcore such as City Morgue. The
skinhead A skinhead is a member of a subculture which originated among working class youths in London, England, in the 1960s and soon spread to other parts of the United Kingdom, with a second working class skinhead movement emerging worldwide in th ...
subculture of the United Kingdom in the late 1960s – which had almost disappeared in the early 1970s – was revived in the late 1970s, partly because of the influence of punk rock, especially the
Oi! Oi! is a subgenre of punk rock that originated in the United Kingdom in the late 1970s. The music and its associated subculture had the goal of bringing together punks, skinheads, and other disaffected working-class youth. The movement was ...
punk subgenre. Conversely,
ska Ska (; ) is a music genre that originated in Jamaica in the late 1950s and was the precursor to rocksteady and reggae. It combined elements of Caribbean mento and calypso with American jazz and rhythm and blues. Ska is characterized by a walki ...
and
reggae Reggae () is a music genre that originated in Jamaica in the late 1960s. The term also denotes the modern popular music of Jamaica and its diaspora. A 1968 single by Toots and the Maytals, " Do the Reggay" was the first popular song to use ...
, popular among Trojan skinhead, traditionalist skinheads, has influenced several punk musicians. Punks and skinheads have had both antagonistic and friendly relationships, depending on the social circumstances, time period, and geographic location. The punk and heavy metal subcultures have shared some similarities since punk's inception. The early 1970s protopunk scene had an influence on the development of heavy metal. Alice Cooper was a forerunner of the fashion and music of both the punk and metal subcultures.
Motörhead Motörhead () were an English rock band formed in London in 1975 by Lemmy (lead vocals, bass), Larry Wallis (guitar) and Lucas Fox (drums). Lemmy was also the primary songwriter and only constant member. The band are often considered a precu ...
, since their first album release in 1977, have enjoyed continued popularity in the punk scene, and their now-deceased frontman Lemmy was a fan of punk rock. Genres such as metalcore, grindcore, and
crossover thrash Crossover thrash (often abbreviated to crossover) is a fusion genre of thrash metal and hardcore punk. The genre lies on a continuum between heavy metal and hardcore punk. Other genres on the same continuum, such as metalcore and grindcore, ...
were greatly influenced by punk rock and heavy metal. The new wave of British heavy metal influenced the UK 82-style of bands like Discharge (band), Discharge, and hardcore was a primary influence on
thrash metal Thrash metal (or simply thrash) is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music characterized by its overall aggression and often fast tempo.Kahn-Harris, Keith, ''Extreme Metal: Music and Culture on the Edge'', pp. 2–3, 9. Oxford: Berg, 2007, . ...
bands such as Metallica and Slayer. The early 1990s grunge subculture was a fusion of punk
anti-fashion Anti-fashion is an umbrella term for various styles of dress which are explicitly contrary to the fashion of the day. Anti-fashion styles may represent an attitude of indifference or may arise from political or practical goals which make fashi ...
ideals and metal-influenced guitar sounds. However, hardcore punk and grunge developed in part as reactions against the heavy metal music that was popular during the 1980s. In punk's heyday, punks faced harassment and attacks from the general public and from members of other subcultures. In the 1980s in the UK, punks were sometimes involved in brawls with Teddy Boy (youth culture), Teddy Boys, greaser (subculture), greasers, Outlaw motorcycle club, bikers, mod (subculture), mods, and members of other subcultures. There was also considerable enmity between Positive punks (known today as goth subculture, goths) and the glamorously dressed New Romantics. In the late 1970s, punks were known to have had confrontations with hippies due to the contrasting ideologies and backlash of the hippie culture. Nevertheless, Penny Rimbaud of the English anarcho-punk band
Crass Crass were an English art collective and punk rock band formed in Epping, Essex in 1977, who promoted anarchism as a political ideology, a lifestylism, way of life, and a resistance movement. Crass popularised the anarcho-punk movement of the ...
said that Crass was formed in memory of his friend, the hippie Wally Hope. Rimbaud also said that Crass were heavily involved with the hippie movement throughout the 1960s and 1970s, with Dial House being established in 1967. Many punks were often critical of Crass for their involvement in the hippie movement. Like Crass, Jello Biafra was influenced by the hippie movement and cited the
yippie The Youth International Party (YIP), whose members were commonly called Yippies, was an American youth-oriented radical and countercultural revolutionary offshoot of the free speech and anti-war movements of the late 1960s. It was founded on ...
s as a key influence on his political activism and thinking, though he did write songs critical of hippies. The industrial music, industrial and
rivethead A rivethead or rivet head is a person associated with the industrial dance music scene. In stark contrast to the original industrial culture, whose performers and heterogeneous audience were sometimes referred to as "industrialists", the rivethe ...
subcultures have had several ties to punk, in terms of music, fashion, and attitude. Power pop music (as defined by groups such as
Badfinger Badfinger were a Welsh rock band formed in Swansea, who were active from the 1960s to the 1980s. Their best-known lineup consisted of Pete Ham (vocals, guitar), Mike Gibbins (drums), Tom Evans (bass), and Joey Molland (guitar). They are rec ...
, Cheap Trick, The Knack, and The Romantics) emerged in mostly the same time frame and geographical area as punk rock, and they shared a great deal musically in terms of playing short songs loud and fast while trying to emphasize catchy feelings. More melodic and pop-influenced punk music has also often been wrapped alongside power pop bands under the general "new wave music" label. A good example of a genre-straddling "power pop punk" band is the popular Northern Ireland group
Protex Protex are a Belfast Punk rock, punk band which formed in 1978. Their first records were issued on Good Vibrations (record label), Good Vibrations records. They formed part of the first wave of Belfast punk bands along with label-mates The Und ...
. However, stylistically and lyrically, power pop bands have tended to have a very "not-punk" top 40 commercial pop music influence and a flashier, heavily teen-pop sense of fashion, especially modern power pop groups such as Stereo Skyline and All Time Low.


Persecution


East Germany

The punk scene began to emerge in socialist East Germany in the late 1970’s. It shared many similarities with that of the West and was considered by the ruling authorities to be a spread of an international youth sub-culture which had its roots in the U.S.A. and Western Europe. Indeed, this was an assessment many East German punks shared themselves. According to one, Mario Schulz, "The start was that I liked the music. I did not quite understand the English texts, but this ostentatious experience as an outsider, this capacity to shock, that pleased me. I was already- someone else would probably express it differently- an awkward sod." By the authorities, punk was seen as representing a way of life which was contrary in nature to existing social conventions and values. Punks were, however, not the only youth sub-culture to be considered ‘negative decadent’ and a threat to the stability of socialist society: heavy metallers, skinheads, and goths were also targeted. Whilst it is hard to ascertain an exact figure, the punk scene in East Germany in the early 1980s was still relatively small. For example, ‘In 1981, the Stasi (secret police) identified 1,000 punks and a broader group of 10,000 sympathisers.’ Punks, whether considered as individuals or as groups, were persecuted by both the regular police and the Stasi. More overt methods of persecution by the regular police- such as enforced haircutting, arrest, and physical beatings- were combined unofficially with the more insidious and far-reaching Zersetzung, decomposition methods (trans. Zersetzung) of the Stasi: these involved various forms of
infiltration Infiltration may refer to: Science, medicine, and engineering *Infiltration (hydrology), downward movement of water into soil *Infiltration (HVAC), a heating, ventilation, and air conditioning term for air leakage into buildings *Infiltration (me ...
, false flag type acts, framing (law), framing, psychological harassment methods designed to cause mental health problems, and political abuse of psychiatry, incarceration on the basis of mental health legislation or on the basis of imprisonment, crimes ostensibly committed. As the methods of the Stasi were difficult to detect and even harder to prove, it allowed them to circumvent international condemnation in regard to the persecution of their own citizens. Aside from being designed to harm people, the methods were also designed to discredit and isolate individuals and break up the various bands and groupings. They relied heavily on the hiring of collaborators who were of a similar disposition to those who were being targeted. According to Stasi officers, this was a task which was harder to achieve with punks due to their ‘feeling of belonging together.’ Nonetheless, the Stasi did have notable success in the repression and decomposition of the punk scene. Former member of the band ''Namenlos'', Jana Schlosser, stated in 1984 when she came out of jail, that "The Stasi had pretty well managed to smash punk."


Global perspectives

The punk subculture has spread to many countries around the world. The fluidity of musical expression in particular makes it an ideal medium for this cross-cultural interpretation.


Mexico

In Mexico, punk culture is primarily a phenomenon among the upper-middle class, many of whom were first exposed to punk music through travel to England, but rapidly shifted to the lower-class youth. Because of low fees at public universities in Mexico, a significant majority of Mexican punks are university students. It is estimated approximately 5,000 young people are active punks in Mexico City, hosting two or three underground shows a week. These young people often form chavos banda—youth gangs—that organized subculture activity by creating formal meeting spaces and rituals and practices. Oral nicknames are a distinguishing feature of Mexican punk, where the tradition of oral culture has influenced the development of nicknames for almost all Mexican punks. Patches are widely used as an inexpensive way to alter clothing and express identity. Though English-language bands like the
Dead Kennedys Dead Kennedys are an American punk rock band that formed in San Francisco, California, in 1978. The band was one of the defining punk bands during its initial eight-year run. Dead Kennedys' lyrics were usually political in nature, satirizing p ...
are well known in Mexico, punks there prefer Spanish-language music or covers translated into Spanish. The slam dance style common in the California punk scene of the early 1980s is thoroughly adopted as part of the movement and continues to be the most popular dancing style among punks. Performance and ideology practices often reflect the socioeconomic circumstances of Mexican punks. Live shows, called "Tocadas" are generally held in public spaces like basketball courts or community centers instead of places of business like venues, bars, and restaurants, as is more common in the United States and Europe. They usually take place in the afternoon and end early to accommodate the two or three hours it takes many punks to return home by public transit. Mexican punk groups rarely release vinyl or CD recordings, usually cassettes are the preferred format. Though Mexican punk itself does not have an explicit political agenda, Mexican punks have been active in the Zapatistas (Mexican Revolution), Zapatista,
Anarcho-punk Anarcho-punk (also known as anarchist punk or peace punk) is ideological subgenre of punk rock that promotes anarchism. Some use the term broadly to refer to any punk music with anarchist lyrical content, which may figure in crust punk, hardcor ...
, and anti-globalisation movements.


South Africa

Punk arrived slowly in South Africa during the 1970s when waves of British tradesmen welcomed by the then-Apartheid in South Africa, apartheid government brought cultural influences like the popular British music magazine ''
NME ''New Musical Express'' (''NME'') is a British music, film, gaming, and culture website and brand. Founded as a newspaper in 1952, with the publication being referred to as a 'rock inkie', the NME would become a magazine that ended up as a f ...
'', sold in South Africa six weeks after publication. South African punk developed separately in
Johannesburg Johannesburg ( , , ; Zulu and xh, eGoli ), colloquially known as Jozi, Joburg, or "The City of Gold", is the largest city in South Africa, classified as a megacity, and is one of the 100 largest urban areas in the world. According to Demo ...
,
Durban Durban ( ) ( zu, eThekwini, from meaning 'the port' also called zu, eZibubulungwini for the mountain range that terminates in the area), nicknamed ''Durbs'',Ishani ChettyCity nicknames in SA and across the worldArticle on ''news24.com'' from ...
, and Cape Town and relied on live performances in Township (South Africa), townships and streets as the multi-racial composition of bands and fan bases challenged the legal and social conventions of the apartheid regime. Political participation is foundational to punk subculture in South Africa. During the apartheid regime, punk was second only to Rock music in its importance to multi-racial interactions in South Africa. Because of this, any involvement in the punk scene was in itself a political statement. Police harassment was common and the government often censored explicitly political lyrics. Johannesburg-based band National Wake was routinely censored and even banned for songs like "International News," which challenged the South African government's refusal to acknowledge the racial and political conflict in the country. National Wake guitarist Ivan Kadey attributes the punk scene's ability to persevere despite the legal challenges of multi-racial mixing to punk subculture's
DIY ethic "Do it yourself" ("DIY") is the method of building, modifying, or repairing things by oneself without the direct aid of professionals or certified experts. Academic research has described DIY as behaviors where "individuals use raw and sem ...
and
anti-establishment An anti-establishment view or belief is one which stands in opposition to the conventional social, political, and economic principles of a society. The term was first used in the modern sense in 1958, by the British magazine ''New Statesman'' ...
attitude. In post-apartheid South Africa, punk attracted a greater number of white middle-class males than the more diverse makeup of the subculture during the apartheid era. Thabo Mbeki's African Renaissance movement has complicated the position of white South Africans in contemporary society. Punk provides young white men the opportunity to explore and express their minority identity. Cape Town band Hog Hoggidy Hog sings of the strange status of white Africans: :''It's my home it's where I'll stay and where I belong,'' :''I didn't choose to be here I was born I might seem out of place'' :''but everything I hold dear is under the African sun.'' Post-apartheid punk subculture continues to be active in South African politics, organising a 2000 festival called Punks Against Racism at Thrashers Statepark in
Pretoria Pretoria () is South Africa's administrative capital, serving as the seat of the executive branch of government, and as the host to all foreign embassies to South Africa. Pretoria straddles the Apies River and extends eastward into the foot ...
. Rather than the sense of despondency and fatalism that characterised 1970s British punk subculture, the politically engaged South African scene is more positive about the future of South Africa.


Peru

In Peru punk traces its roots to the band Los Saicos, a Lima group that played the unique blend of garage and break dance music that would later be labeled punk as early as the 1960s. The early activity of Los Saicos has led many to claim that punk originated in Lima instead of the UK, as is typically assumed. Though their claim to be the first punk band in the world can be disputed, Los Saicos were undoubtedly the first in Latin America and released their first single in 1965. The group played to full houses and made frequent television appearances throughout the 1960s. Throughout the 1970s, the band was completely forgotten. Years later, a plaque that declares "here the global punk-rock movement was born" was placed at the corner of Miguel Iglesias and Julio C. Tello Streets in Lima. By the 1980s the punk scene in Peru was highly active. Peruvian punks call themselves ''subtes'' and appropriate the subversive implications of the English term "underground" through the Spanish term ''subterraneo'' (literally, subterranean). In the 1980s and 1990s subtes made almost exclusive use of cassette recording as a means of circulating music without participating in formal intellectual property and musical production industries. The current scene relies on digital distribution and assumes similar anti-establishment practices. Like many punk subcultures, subtes explicitly oppose the Peruvian state and advocate instead an anarchic resistance that challenges the political and mainstream cultural establishment.


Cuba

A punk subculture originated in
Cuba Cuba ( , ), officially the Republic of Cuba ( es, República de Cuba, links=no ), is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the northern Caribbea ...
in the 1980s, referred to as Los Frikis. As Cuban radio stations rarely played rock music, Frikis often listened to music by picking up radio frequencies from stations in nearby Florida. While many Frikas in the early-1990s entered AIDS clinics by knowingly injecting HIV-positive blood into them, others began congregating at ''El patio de María'', a community centre in
Havana Havana (; Spanish: ''La Habana'' ) is the capital and largest city of Cuba. The heart of the La Habana Province, Havana is the country's main port and commercial center.
that was one of the few venues in the city that allowed rock bands to play. Some Frikis also participate in squatting as an act of political defiance. In its beginning, the subculture was seen as a threat to the Collectivism and individualism, collectivism of Cuban society, leading to Frikis becoming victims of discrimination and police brutality. According to the New Times Broward-Palm Beach some Frikis were "rejected by family and often jailed or fined by the government", the 1980s Friki woman Yoandra Cardoso, however, has that argued that much of the response was verbal harassment from law enforcement. Dionisio Arce, lead vocalist of Cuban heavy metal band Zeus spent six years in prison due to his part in the Frikis. Some schools would forcibly shave the heads of young Frikis as a form of punishment.


See also


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * *


Further reading

* * Savage, Jon. ''England's Dreaming: The Sex Pistols and Punk Rock''. Faber and Faber, 1991.


External links

* {{Authority control Underground culture, * 1970s in the United Kingdom Australian culture Motorcycling subculture Music and politics Musical subcultures Punk Stereotypes Youth culture in the United Kingdom