Pisaura mirabilis on Plantago lanceolata

The

nursery web spider Nursery web spiders (Pisauridae) is a family of araneomorph spiders first described by Eugène Simon in 1890. They resemble wolf spiders (Lycosidae) except for several key differences. Wolf spiders have two very prominent eyes in addition to the o ...

''Pisaura mirabilis'' is a

spider Spiders ( order Araneae) are air-breathing arthropods that have eight legs, chelicerae with fangs generally able to inject venom, and spinnerets that extrude silk. They are the largest order of arachnids and rank seventh in total species ...

species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...

of the family

Pisauridae Nursery web spiders (Pisauridae) is a family of Araneomorphae, araneomorph spiders first described by Eugène Simon in 1890. They resemble wolf spiders (Lycosidae) except for several key differences. Wolf spiders have two very prominent eyes in ad ...

Description

Striking characteristics of ''Pisaura mirabilis'' are its long legs (the fourth one being the longest) and its slender abdomen (

opisthosoma The opisthosoma is the posterior part of the body in some arthropods, behind the prosoma (cephalothorax). It is a distinctive feature of the subphylum Chelicerata (arachnids, horseshoe crabs and others). Although it is similar in most respects to a ...

). The male is between 10 and 13 mm, while the female is 12 to 15 mm. After final

ecdysis Ecdysis is the moulting of the cuticle in many invertebrates of the clade Ecdysozoa. Since the cuticle of these animals typically forms a largely inelastic exoskeleton, it is shed during growth and a new, larger covering is formed. The remna ...

, the male spiders weigh on average 54 mg and females 68 mg. The prosoma (

cephalothorax The cephalothorax, also called prosoma in some groups, is a tagma of various arthropods, comprising the head and the thorax fused together, as distinct from the abdomen behind. (The terms ''prosoma'' and ''opisthosoma'' are equivalent to ''cepha ...

) is variable in color, ranging from light to reddish brown and from gray to black. A lighter stripe is visible down the middle of the prosoma. The opisthosoma (abdomen) is long and narrow and tapered towards the rear end. The female spiders has a dark patch (

epigyne The epigyne or epigynum is the external genital structure of female spiders. As the epigyne varies greatly in form in different species, even in closely related ones, it often provides the most distinctive characteristic for recognizing species. ...

) on the underside of her abdomen that includes the copulatory organs. Male genital openings can be found at the same location, but remain inconspicuous. Patterning and coloration varies due to polymorphism. These patterns, which can be caused by hair and pigments, change with the growth of the spider (

ontogenesis Ontogeny (also ontogenesis) is the origination and development of an organism (both physical and psychological, e.g., moral development), usually from the time of fertilization of the egg to adult. The term can also be used to refer to the st ...

). Male spiders are stronger in contrast than females and look black, especially in comparison to the white

nuptial gift A nuptial gift is a nutritional gift given by one partner in some animals' sexual reproduction practices. Formally, a nuptial gift is a material presentation to a recipient by a donor during or in relation to sexual intercourse that is not simpl ...

s. Females tend to get paler towards the end of summer. The stripe along the back of the body can be found in all spiders and can be seen as

crypsis In ecology, crypsis is the ability of an animal or a plant to avoid observation or detection by other animals. It may be a predation strategy or an antipredator adaptation. Methods include camouflage, nocturnality, subterranean lifestyle and ...

, a protective measure against predators. The

pedipalp Pedipalps (commonly shortened to palps or palpi) are the second pair of appendages of chelicerates – a group of arthropods including spiders, scorpions, horseshoe crabs, and sea spiders. The pedipalps are lateral to the chelicerae ("jaws") and ...

s in

nymphs A nymph ( grc, νύμφη, nýmphē, el, script=Latn, nímfi, label=Modern Greek; , ) in ancient Greek folklore is a minor female nature deity. Different from Greek goddesses, nymphs are generally regarded as personifications of nature, are typ ...

and females look similar to legs. In males, this structure gets thicker towards the end and is used to store sperm until reproduction ( bulbus). The outer

chelicerae The chelicerae () are the mouthparts of the subphylum Chelicerata, an arthropod group that includes arachnids, horseshoe crabs, and sea spiders. Commonly referred to as "jaws", chelicerae may be shaped as either articulated fangs, or similarly ...

segment consists of three teeth. They catch their prey during the day and at night and are also active on warm winter days.

Habitat and distribution

''Pisaura mirabilis'' has a

palearctic The Palearctic or Palaearctic is the largest of the eight biogeographic realms of the Earth. It stretches across all of Eurasia north of the foothills of the Himalayas, and North Africa. The realm consists of several bioregions: the Euro-Sibe ...

distribution, and can be found all over Europe. These spiders inhabit the

Canary Islands The Canary Islands (; es, Canarias, ), also known informally as the Canaries, are a Spanish autonomous community and archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, in Macaronesia. At their closest point to the African mainland, they are west of Morocc ...

and

Madeira ) , anthem = ( en, "Anthem of the Autonomous Region of Madeira") , song_type = Regional anthem , image_map=EU-Portugal_with_Madeira_circled.svg , map_alt=Location of Madeira , map_caption=Location of Madeira , subdivision_type=Sovereign st ...

, the Asian part of

Russia Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia, Northern Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the ...

China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...

and

North Africa North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...

. ''P. mirabilis'' lives in all

habitat In ecology, the term habitat summarises the array of resources, physical and biotic factors that are present in an area, such as to support the survival and reproduction of a particular species. A species habitat can be seen as the physical ...

s, but prefers wet environments, such as

wet meadow A wet meadow is a type of wetland with soils that are saturated for part or all of the growing season. Debate exists whether a wet meadow is a type of marsh or a completely separate type of wetland. Wet prairies and wet savannas are hydrologically ...

s, lowland moors,

salt marsh A salt marsh or saltmarsh, also known as a coastal salt marsh or a tidal marsh, is a coastal ecosystem in the upper coastal intertidal zone between land and open saltwater or brackish water that is regularly flooded by the tides. It is dominated ...

es,

dune A dune is a landform composed of wind- or water-driven sand. It typically takes the form of a mound, ridge, or hill. An area with dunes is called a dune system or a dune complex. A large dune complex is called a dune field, while broad, f ...

s, the edge of forests, and wet hedges. It inhabits all

strata In geology and related fields, a stratum ( : strata) is a layer of rock or sediment characterized by certain lithologic properties or attributes that distinguish it from adjacent layers from which it is separated by visible surfaces known as ei ...

, from the ground to the top of trees, but are not found under rocks or in caves. These spiders can be found at altitudes up to 1500 m.

Life cycle

The spider develops from a fertilised egg inside a cocoon into an

embryo An embryo is an initial stage of development of a multicellular organism. In organisms that reproduce sexually, embryonic development is the part of the life cycle that begins just after fertilization of the female egg cell by the male spe ...

. After inversion, the embryo enters the prelarval stage. A few hours later, the prelarva moults into a

larva A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. The ...

. At this stage, the spiders are colorless but mobile, and can detect sensory signals from its surrounding. They do not have any eyes yet and their chelicerae are short and sharp. A few fine hairs can be found on their feet. Depending on the temperature, the larvae moult after 4.5 – 7.5 days into the first nymphal stage. Once leaving the cocoon through an opening, they live in a protective web made by the mother, where they feed on the leftover yolk from their eggs and drink from water droplets. After about a week, the nymphs start suspending themselves from their own

spider silk Spider silk is a protein fibre spun by spiders. Spiders use their silk to make Spider web, webs or other structures, which function as sticky nets to catch other animals, or as nests or cocoons to protect their offspring, or to wrap up prey. ...

and start preying on

fruit flies Fruit fly may refer to: Organisms * Drosophilidae, a family of small flies, including: ** ''Drosophila'', the genus of small fruit flies and vinegar flies ** ''Drosophila melanogaster'' or common fruit fly ** ''Drosophila suzukii'' or Asian fruit ...

. This usually happens in the sixth or seventh nymphal stage.

Cannibalism Cannibalism is the act of consuming another individual of the same species as food. Cannibalism is a common ecological interaction in the animal kingdom and has been recorded in more than 1,500 species. Human cannibalism is well documented, b ...

does not occur in the first few days, but occurs in later stages. The whole nymphal stage is divided into 12 stages at most. Male spiders become sexually mature in the 9th to 11th stages, females in the 10th to 12th stages. Temperature can influence the development and number of stages, with colder temperatures slowing down the process. Under good conditions, spiders can complete their nymphal development in fewer than 12 stages. The duration from prelarval stage to final moult (maturity) typically lasts 257 days for males (stage 10) and 289 days for females (stage 11). Adulthood is the period after final moult till death. Females live longer than males, the record being 247 days for females and 186.5 days for males. Depending on habitat, nursery web spiders

hibernate Hibernation is a state of minimal activity and metabolic depression undergone by some animal species. Hibernation is a seasonal heterothermy characterized by low body-temperature, slow breathing and heart-rate, and low metabolic rate. It most ...

once or twice during the nymphal stage. The period of hibernation (

diapause In animal dormancy, diapause is the delay in development in response to regular and recurring periods of adverse environmental conditions.Tauber, M.J., Tauber, C.A., Masaki, S. (1986) ''Seasonal Adaptations of Insects''. Oxford University Press It ...

) is spent in ground vegetation under leaves, moss, and stones. They can be found in garages and houses, as well. Some individuals in the south of

France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...

have been found under loose bark of the

plane tree ''Platanus'' is a genus consisting of a small number of tree species native to the Northern Hemisphere. They are the sole living members of the family Platanaceae. All mature members of ''Platanus'' are tall, reaching in height. All except f ...

. The nymphs in stages 6 to 8 start hibernating in November and continue with their development towards the end of February to the beginning of March. ''Pisaura mirabilis'' in

Western Western may refer to: Places *Western, Nebraska, a village in the US *Western, New York, a town in the US *Western Creek, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western Junction, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western world, countries that id ...

- and

Central Central is an adjective usually referring to being in the center of some place or (mathematical) object. Central may also refer to: Directions and generalised locations * Central Africa, a region in the centre of Africa continent, also known as ...

Europe reach sexual maturity in May, when sperm uptake, the search for females, offering of nuptial gifts, and courtship and mating takes place. In Northern and

Eastern Eastern may refer to: Transportation *China Eastern Airlines, a current Chinese airline based in Shanghai *Eastern Air, former name of Zambia Skyways *Eastern Air Lines, a defunct American airline that operated from 1926 to 1991 *Eastern Air Li ...

Europe, spiders reach sexual maturity only in June, while in Southern Europe, they become sexually mature in April. Nursery web spiders have a one-year annual cycle in southern Europe. They grow in summer, hibernate in winter, reach adulthood in spring, and reproduce and then die in autumn. Their offspring are sexually mature in the following spring. Spiders from the north have a two-year cycle, having to go through two hibernations before reaching sexual maturity. Spiders in Western and Central Europe have a mix of both one- and two-year cycles. Males have a two-month period to reproduce; females three and a half.

Mating system

Males of this species offer a

to potential female mates. Some ''Pisaura mirabilis'' specimens have also been observed to use

thanatosis Apparent death, colloquially known as playing dead, feigning death, or playing possum, is a behavior in which animals take on the appearance of being dead. It is an immobile state most often triggered by a predatory attack and can be found in a ...

during courtship.Hansen, S. H., Gonzalez S. F., Toft, S., & Bilde, T. (2008). Thanatosis as an adaptive male mating strategy in the nuptial gift-giving spider ''Pisaura mirabilis''. Behavioral Ecology 19: 546–551. After presenting the nuptial gift to the female, she bites on to the gift and the male moves to her

to deposit sperm with his

pedipalps Pedipalps (commonly shortened to palps or palpi) are the second pair of appendages of chelicerates – a group of arthropods including spiders, scorpions, horseshoe crabs, and sea spiders. The pedipalps are lateral to the chelicerae ("jaws") and ...

. Throughout copulation, the male keeps a leg on the gift so as to be ready if she tries to escape with it or attack him. At this time, the male may feign death – his limbs become straight and he is dragged along with the female while holding on to the gift. When the female stops, the male slowly "resurrects" and continues attempting to mate. Thanatosis in ''P. mirabilis'' has been observed to significantly increase the male's odds of successfully copulating from less than 30% to 89%.

Predators, parasites, and pathogens

Predators of ''Pisaura mirabilis'' includes

spider wasp Wasps in the family Pompilidae are commonly called spider wasps, spider-hunting wasps, or pompilid wasps. The family is cosmopolitan, with some 5,000 species in six subfamilies. Nearly all species are solitary (with the exception of some group-ne ...

s, tree frogs,

lizards Lizards are a widespread group of squamate reptiles, with over 7,000 species, ranging across all continents except Antarctica, as well as most oceanic island chains. The group is paraphyletic since it excludes the snakes and Amphisbaenia althou ...

, and

song birds A songbird is a bird belonging to the suborder Passeri of the perching birds (Passerine, Passeriformes). Another name that is sometimes seen as the scientific or vernacular name is Oscines, from Latin ''oscen'', "songbird". The Passeriformes co ...

during the day, and

toads Toad is a common name for certain frogs, especially of the family Bufonidae, that are characterized by dry, leathery skin, short legs, and large bumps covering the parotoid glands. A distinction between frogs and toads is not made in scientif ...

, shrew mice, and

bat Bats are mammals of the order Chiroptera.''cheir'', "hand" and πτερόν''pteron'', "wing". With their forelimbs adapted as wings, they are the only mammals capable of true and sustained flight. Bats are more agile in flight than most ...

s at night. Other spider species, as well as from the same species (cannibalism), consider ''P. mirabilis'' as prey. Nursery web spiders are often parasitised by

nematode The nematodes ( or grc-gre, Νηματώδη; la, Nematoda) or roundworms constitute the phylum Nematoda (also called Nemathelminthes), with plant-Parasitism, parasitic nematodes also known as eelworms. They are a diverse animal phylum inhab ...

s, parasitic wasps, and

Acari Mites are small arachnids (eight-legged arthropods). Mites span two large orders of arachnids, the Acariformes and the Parasitiformes, which were historically grouped together in the subclass Acari, but genetic analysis does not show clear evid ...

. These parasites infect the spider and its eggs and cocoons, which can lead to destruction of a whole clutch of eggs. ''

Baculoviridae ''Baculoviridae'' is a family of viruses. Arthropods, among the most studied being Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera and Diptera, serve as natural hosts. Currently, 85 species are placed in this family, assigned to four genera. Baculoviruses are known ...

'' and ''

Rickettsia ''Rickettsia'' is a genus of nonmotile, gram-negative, nonspore-forming, highly pleomorphic bacteria that may occur in the forms of cocci (0.1 μm in diameter), bacilli (1–4 μm long), or threads (up to about 10 μm long). The term "rickett ...

'' species infect nursery web spiders, as well. They most likely enter the gastrointestinal tract via the spiders' prey. Not only can nymphs and adults be infected, but different stages in the cocoon are infected, as well.

References

* A. Lang, C. Klarenberg: ''Experiments on the foraging behaviour of the hunting spider Pisaura mirabilis (Araneae, Pisauridae): Utilisation of single prey items''. Eur. J. Ent. 94: 453–459, 1997 * A. Lang: ''A note on body size parameters and some life data of Pisaura mirabilis (Araneae, Pisauridae)''. Proc. XV. Eur. Coll. Arachnol. 111–115, 1995 * A. Lang: ''Silk investment in gifts by males of the nuptial feeding spider Pisaura mirabilis (Araneae, Pisauridae)''. Behaviour 133: 697–716, 1996 * A. Lang:''Die Spinnseide des Brautgeschenks bei Pisaura mirabilis (Clerck 1757) (Araneae, Pisauridae)''. Diplomarbeit Univ. München, 1991 * B. Baehr, M. Baehr: ''Welche Spinne ist das? Kleine Spinnenkunde für jedermann''. Franckh Kosmos Verlag, Stuttgart, 1987, * C. Clerck: ''Svenska spindlar. Aranei svecici''. Stockholm, 1757 * C. D. Dondale, R. Legendre: ''Winter diapause in a Mediterranean population of Pisaura mirabilis (Clerck)''. Bull. Br. Arach. Soc. 2 (1): 6–10 * C. F. Roewer: ''Katalog der Aranae von 1758 bis 1954''. 2a: 110–151, Bruxelles, 1954 * Carl Linné: ''Systema naturae. Per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis''. Tomus 1. Editio decima, reformata, Holmiae, Facsimile 1956 Jarrolds Norwich, 1758 * Dick Jones: ''Der Kosmos Spinnenführer''. Franckh Kosmos Verlag, 1990, * F. Dahl, M. Dahl: ''3. Spinnentiere oder Arachnoidea. I-II''. G. Fischer Jena, 1926/27 * F. Dahl: ''Die Lycosiden oder Wolfsspinnen Deutschlands und ihre Stellung im Haushalte der Natur. Nach statistischen Untersuchungen dargestellt''. Nova acta Acad. Caes. Leop. Carol. 88: 175–678, 1908 * F. Renner: ''Spinnen ungeheuer – sympathisch''. Rainar Nitzsche Verlag, Kaiserslautern, 1990/2008, * F. Sauer, J. Wunderlich: ''Die schönsten Spinnen Europas''. Fauna Verlag, Karlsfeld, 1984 * G. Le Pape,: ''Relations entre comportement alimentaire et comportement sexuel chez Pisaura mirabilis (Aranéide, Pisauride)''. Rev. Comp. Anim. 8: 71–75, 1974 * G. Le Pape: ''Contribution à l'étude du comportment reproducteur en liaison avec l'alimentation chez quatre Arachnides: Teutana grossa, Pardosa lugubris, Pisaura mirabilis, Buthus occitanus''. Thèse Doctorat d'Etat Univ. Rennes, 1972 * G. Schmidt: ''Das Liebes- und Familienleben der Heidejagdspinne''. Aus der Heimat 60: 153–154, 1952 * G. Schmidt: ''Psychologie einer Spinne. Die Heidejagdspinne und ihre Bedeutung für die Umweltforschung''. Orion 10: 560–568, 1955 * G. Schmidt: ''Spinnen. Alles Wissenswerte über Lebensweise, Sammeln, Haltung und Zucht''. A. Philler, Minden, 1980 * G. Schmidt: ''Zur Spinnenfauna der Kanaren, Madeiras und der Azoren''. Stuttgarter Beitr. Naturk. Ser. A 451: 1–46 * G. Schmidt: ''Zur Spinnenfauna von Gran Canaria''. Zool. Beitr. N. F. 19: 347–392, 1973 * G. Schmidt: ''Zur Spinnenfauna von La Gomera''. Zool. Beitr. (N. F.) 27: 85–107 * G. Schmidt: ''Zur Spinnenfauna von Teneriffa''. Zool. Beitr. N. F. 14: 387–425, 1968 * H. Lucas: ''Arachnides, Myriapodes et Thysanoures''. In: M. P. Barker-Webb, S. Berthelot: ''Histoire Naturelle des Iles Canaries''. Béthune, Paris, 1843 * H. Pfletschinger: ''Einheimische Spinnen. Die Webspinnen – Arten und Verhalten in 120 Farbfotos''. Franck Kosmos Verlag, Stuttgart, 1976 * H. Stern, E. Kullmann: ''Leben am seidenen Faden. Die rätselvolle Welt der Spinnen''. Bertelsmann Verlag, München, 1975 * H. W. Smolik: ''Weltreich der Tiere''. Naturalis Verlag, München, 1987 * Hänggi, Stöckli und Nentwig: ''Lebensräume mitteleuropäischer Spinnen. Centre Suisse de cartographie de la faune''. Neuchatel Verlag, 1995, * Heiko Bellmann: ''Kosmos-Atlas Spinnentiere Europas''. Franck Kosmos Verlag, 1997, * Heiko Bellmann: ''Spinnen (die wichtigsten heimischen Arten, Extra: Netzformen und Eikokons)''. Franckh Kosmos Verlag, 1994 * Heiko Bellmann: ''Spinnen: beobachten – bestimmen'', Naturbuch Verlag, Augsburg, 1992, * J. A. Barrientos: ''Dolomedes et Pisaura dans la région catalane (Araneida, Pisauridae)''. Rev. Arachol. 2: 17–21 * J. Wunderlich: ''Die Spinnen der Kanarischen Inseln und Madeiras''. Triops Verlag, Langen, 1987 * J.-C. Bonaric: ''Contribution à l'étude de la biologie du développement chez l'araignée Pisaura mirabilis (Clerck 1758). Approche physiologique des phénomènes de mue et de diapause hivernale''. Thèse Doctorat d'Etat, Univ. Montpellier, 1980 * J.-C. Bonaric: ''Evolution du métabolisme respiratoire de Pisaura mirabilis CL. (Araneae, Pisauridae) au cours de la période nympho-imaginale''. Rev. Arachnol. 1: 33–43, 1977 * J.-C. Bonaric: ''La cycle vitale de l'araignée Pisaura mirabilis et ses adapatations''. Bull. Soc. Zool. Fr. 110 (3): 269–274, 1985 * J.-C. Bonaric: ''Le développement post-embryonnaire de Pisaura mirabilis CL. (Araneae, Pisauridae)''. C. R. Acad. Sci. sér. D. 278: 3227–3230, 1974 * J.-C. Bonaric: ''Utilisation des barêmes trichobothriotaxiques comme critère d'âge chez Pisaura mirabilis CL. (Araneae, Pisauridae)''. Ann. Zool. 12e sér. 17: 521–534, 1975 * K. De Geer: ''Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der Insekten. 3. Abhandlung. Von den Spinnen. 7''. Raspe Nürnberg, 1783 * M. J. Roberts: ''Spinnengids''. Tirion, 1998 * Martin Lister: ''Historiae animalum angliae tres tractatus''. London, 1678 * P. Blandin: ''Cycle biologique et production de l'araignée Afropisaura valida (Simon 1885)(Araneae, Pisauridae) dans une savane d'Afrique occidentale (Lamto, Côte-d'Ivoire)''. Trop. Ecol. 20: 78–93, 1974 * P. Blandin: ''Etudes sur les Pisauridae africaines. I-XI''. Rev. Suisse Zool. 81, Rev. Zool. afr. 89–93, 1974–1979 * P. Grüne: ''Westfälische Spinnen. III. Die Haidespinnen''. Natur Offenb.19: 213–223, 1873 * P. M. Brignoli: ''A Catalogue of the Aranea described between 1940 and 1981''. Manchester Univ. Press, 1983 * P. M. Brignoli: ''Spiders from Libanon. III. Some notes on the Pisauridae, Agelenidae and Oxyopidae of the Near East''. Bull. Br. arachnol. Soc. 4 (5): 204–209, 1978 * P. M. Brignoli: ''Zur Problematik der mediterranen Pisaura-Arten (Arachnida, Araneae, Pisauridae)''. Zool. Anz. 213: 33–43, 1984 * P. Pénicaud: ''Dynamique d'une population de l'araignée Pisaura mirabilis Cl. dans une lande bretonne''. Thèse Doctorat d'Etat Univ. Paris, 1979 * Rainar Nitzsche: ''Beutefang und Brautgeschenk bei der Raubspinne Pisaura mirabilis (CL.)(Aranea,Pisauridae)''. Reprint der Diplomarbeit von 1981. Rainar Nitzsche Verlag, Kaiserslautern, 2006, * Rainar Nitzsche: ''Brautgeschenk und Reproduktion bei Pisaura mirabilis, einschließlich vergleichender Untersuchungen an Dolomedes fimbriatus und Thaumasia uncata (Araneida, Pisauridae)''. Reprint der Dissertation von 1987. Rainar Nitzsche Verlag, Kaiserslautern, 2006, * Rainar Nitzsche: ''Brautgeschenk und Umspinnen der Beute bei Pisaura mirabilis, Dolomedes fimbriatus und Thaumasia uncata (Arachnida, Araneida, Pisauridae)''. Verh. naturwiss. Ver. Hamburg (NF) 30, 1988 * Rainar Nitzsche: ''Brautgeschenke bei Spinnen – die heimische Pisaura mirabilis (CLERCK, 1757) und ihre Verwandten, die Kinderstubennetzspinnen (Pisauridae)''. Arachne 13 (1): 11–29, 2008 * Rainar Nitzsche: ''Courtship, mating and agonistic behaviour in Pisaura mirabilis (CLERCK, 1757)''. Bull. Br. arachnol. Soc. 15 (4): 93–120, 2011 * Rainar Nitzsche: ''Die Spinne mit dem Brautgeschenk Pisaura mirabilis (CLERCK, 1757) und das Paarungsverhalten verwandter Arten der Familie Pisauridae''. Rainar Nitzsche Verlag, Kaiserslautern, 1999, 2007, * Rainar Nitzsche: ''Ein Geschenk für die Braut. Ohne Mitgift haben Raubspinnenmännchen keine Chance''. Ein Herz für Tiere 7/1986 * Rainar Nitzsche: ''Raubspinnen. Kleine Geschenke fördern die Liebe''. GEO 8/1985 * Rainer F. Foelix: ''Biologie der Spinnen''. Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart, 1992, * Stefan Heimer, Wolfgang Nentwig: ''Spinnen Mitteleuropas. Ein Bestimmungsbuch''. Parey Verlag, Berlin, Hamburg, 1991 * Stefan Heimer: ''Wunderbare Welt der Spinnen''. Landbuch Verlag, Hannover, 1988, * W. Bösenberg: ''Die Spinnen Deutschlands''. Zoologica 14: 409–410, 1901 * Willi Lierath: ''Aus dem Reichtum der Natur. Die Brautgeschenkspinne''. Vögel der Heimat 58 (12): 238–239, 1988

Films

* J. Bublath: ''Räuber mit Netz. Das aufregende Leben der Spinnen. Aus Forschung und Technik'', ZDF, 1987 * P. Hayden: ''Wenn Tiere zu Kannibalen werden. Killer in den eigenen Reihen'', SWR (Südwest 3), 1999 * P. Schneider: ''Pisaura mirabilis, die Raub-, Jagd- oder Listspinne'', HWF 14, Begleitheft Heidelberg, 1998 * E. R. Skinner, G. H. Thompson, J. A. L. Cooke: ''Commentary, spiders film 11: Pisauridae. Pisaura mirabilis – courtship and mating. Dolomedes fimbriatus – capture of food''. Oxford (IWF W1017 T), 1966/67 * H. Stern: ''Bemerkungen über Spinnen 2.Meilensteine des Dokumentarfilms'', Ein Franckh-Kosmos Video, Franckh Kosmos Stuttgart, 1975

External links

* *
Platnick: The World Spider Catalog – Pisauridae

{{Taxonbar, from=Q1548200 Pisauridae Spiders described in 1757 Taxa named by Carl Alexander Clerck Spiders of Europe Palearctic spiders