''Parnassius'' is a genus of northern circumpolar and montane (alpine and Himalayan)

butterflies Butterflies are insects in the macrolepidopteran clade Rhopalocera from the Order (biology), order Lepidoptera, which also includes moths. Adult butterflies have large, often brightly coloured wings, and conspicuous, fluttering flight. The ...

usually known as Apollos or snow Apollos. They can vary in colour and form significantly based on their altitude. They also show an adaptation to high altitudes called altitudinal melanism. They show dark bodies and darkened colouration at the wingbase which helps them warm faster using the sun. Although classified under the swallowtail butterfly family, none of the ''Parnassius'' species possesses tails. The larvae feed on species of plants belonging to the

Papaveraceae The Papaveraceae are an economically important family of about 42 genera and approximately 775 known species of flowering plants in the order Ranunculales, informally known as the poppy family. The family is cosmopolitan, occurring in temperat ...

and

Crassulaceae The Crassulaceae (from Latin ''crassus'', thick), also known as the stonecrop family or the orpine family, are a diverse family of dicotyledon flowering plants characterized by succulent leaves and a unique form of photosynthesis, known as Crass ...

families, and like the other swallowtail butterfly larvae, possess an

osmeterium The osmeterium is a defensive organ found in all papilionid larvae, in all stages. The organ is situated in the prothoracic segment and can be everted when the larva feels threatened. The everted organ resembles a fleshy forked tongue (not unlik ...

. Unlike most butterflies that have exposed pupae, they pupate inside a loose silken cocoon.

Identification and ecology

''Parnassius'' species of butterflies are often hard to identify and can sometimes only be identified by dissection of the

genitalia A sex organ (or reproductive organ) is any part of an animal or plant that is involved in sexual reproduction. The reproductive organs together constitute the reproductive system. In animals, the testis in the male, and the ovary in the female, a ...

. The phylogeny of the group is still under study using molecular techniques. The exact number of species within the genus is disputed and numbers range from 38 to 47. The ''Parnassius'' butterflies also have a peculiar reproductive strategy in that the male has special accessory glands that produce a

mating plug A mating plug, also known as a copulation plug, sperm plug, vaginal plug, or sphragis (Latin, from Greek σφραγίς ''sphragis'', "a seal"), is gelatinous secretion used in the mating of some species. It is deposited by a male into a female ge ...

that seals the female genitalia after mating. This is believed to ensure the success of the male and to prevent other males from mating and avoids sperm competition. Butterflies of this genus have been widely used models to study

metapopulation A metapopulation consists of a group of spatially separated populations of the same species which interact at some level. The term metapopulation was coined by Richard Levins in 1969 to describe a model of population dynamics of insect pests in ...

population genetics Population genetics is a subfield of genetics that deals with genetic differences within and between populations, and is a part of evolutionary biology. Studies in this branch of biology examine such phenomena as adaptation, speciation, and pop ...

and gene flow. Their patchy distribution and restricted migration makes them vulnerable to the effects of genetic drift and considerable colour variations can exist in individuals from different regions.

Species

Species include: PARNASSIAN EVERSMANN'S (Parnassius eversmanni) (6-25-2016) denali highway, mile p13 pass, near paxson, alaska (5) (28494228324).jpg, ''Parnassius eversmanni'' Papilionidae - Parnassius apollo-1.JPG, ''Parnassius apollo'' Parnassius glacialis (side).JPG, ''Parnassius glacialis'' Parnassius mnemosyne - Dumanlı apollo 03.jpg, ''Parnassius mnemosyne''

Synonymy

Eight subgenera are recognized within the genus: *''Driopa'' Korshunov, 1988 - type species: ''Papilio mnemosyne'' Linnaeus, 1758 *''Sachaia'' Korshunov, 1988 - type species: ''Parnassius tenedius'' Eversmann, 1851 *''Parnassius'' Latreille, 1804; ''Nouv. Dict. Hist. nat''. 24 (6): 185, 199 - type species: ''Papilio apollo'' Linnaeus *''Tadumia'' Moore [1902]; ''Lepidoptera Indica'', 5 (53): 116 - type species: ''Papilio acco'' Gray *''Kailasius'' Moore, [1902]; ''Lepidoptera Indica'', 5 (53): 118 - type species: ''Parnassius charltonius'' Gray *''Koramius'' Moore, [1902]; ''Lepidoptera Indica'', 5 (53): 120 - type species: ''Parnassius delphius'' Eversmann *''Lingamius'' Bryk, 1935; ''Das Tierreich'' 65: 538-540 - type species: ''Parnassius hardwickii'' Gray *''Eukoramius'' Bryk, 1935; ''Das Tierreich'' 65: 630, 673-674 - type species: ''Parnassius imperator'' Oberthür Other names that are no longer valid include: *''Parnassis'' Hübner, [1819]; ''Verz. bekannter Schmett''. (6): 90 (or misspelled or Emendation (taxonomy), emended?) - type species: ''Papilio apollo'' Linnaeus *''Therius'' Billberg, 1820; ''Enum. Ins. Mus. Billb''.: 75 - type species: ''Papilio apollo'' Linnaeus *''Doritis'' Fabricius, 1807; ''Magazin f. Insektenk''. (Illiger) 6: 283 - type species: ''Papilio apollo'' Linnaeus

Evolutionary relationships

A Molecular phylogenetics, molecular phylogenetic study from 2008 suggests firstly that ''Baronia brevicornis'' Salvin 1893, rather than belonging to an outgroup Baroniinae belongs to Parnassiini, together with ''Hypermnestra'' and ''Parnassius''. Secondly that the earliest split within the genus ''Parnassius'' is between subgenus ''Parnassius'' (the 'apollo' group, whose caterpillars feed on

, exceptionally Saxifragaceae) and the ancestor of the remaining seven subgenera. The existence of the subgenera is confirmed by molecular phylogenies. Six of the other subgenera have Fumariaceae as the larval food plant, while the larvae of the remaining genus ''Kreizbergia'' feed on ScrophulariaceaeMichel, F.; Rebourg, C.; Cosson, E. & Descimon, H. (2008). "Molecular phylogeny of Parnassiinae butterflies (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) based on the sequences of four mitochondrial DNA segments". ''Annales de la Société Entomologique de France''. (n.s.) 44 (1): 1-36.

Important collections

*Naturalis Biodiversity Center, National Museum of Natural History, Leiden, (Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie) Curt Eisner collection: Type (biology), Types listed in Eisner, C. ''Parnassiidae-Typen in der Sammlung J.C.Eisner''. Leiden. E.J.Brill, 1966. 190 pp. Col.frontispiece & 84 plts.(Zool. Verh. RMNH, 81). Review of worldwide species of Parnassiidae, 719 taxon, taxa included. *Natural History Museum, London: Specimens largely determined by Curt Eisner types listed in Ackery, P. R. (1973): A list of the type-specimens of Parnassius (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) in the British Museum (Natural History). ''Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Entomology'' 29 (1) (9.XI.1973): 1—35, 1 p
pdf
*Ulster Museum, Belfast, H.M Peebles collection: Type list available on CD (Nash, R and Eisner, C.) *Muséum national d'histoire naturelle, Paris: Types listed by Georges Bernardi, Bernardi, G., and Pierre Viette, Viette, P. 1966. Les types et typoides de Parnassius (s.l.) se trouvant au Museum de Paris. ''Bulletin de la Société entomologique de France'' 71 95-103, 163-166. 9 229-233, 304-309.

Identification and ecology

Species

Synonymy

Evolutionary relationships

Important collections

References

Further reading

External links